Tuesday, 17 September 2013

Demographics of Tamil Nadu

Demographics of Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu is the seventh most populous state in India. 44 per cent of the state's population live in urban areas, the highest among large states in India. 8  The state has registered the lowest fertility rate in India in year 2005–06 with 1.7 children born for each woman, lower than required for population sustainability. 64
The state has 40,524,545 literates, making the literacy rate to 73.45 per cent. There are a total of 27,878,282 workers, comprising 4,738,819 cultivators, 6,062,786 agricultural labourers, 1,261,059 in house hold industries, 11,695,119 other workers, 4,120,499 marginal workers, 377,220 marginal cultivators, 2,574,844 marginal agricultural labourers, 238,702 marginal workers in household industries and 929,733 other marginal workers. 66 As of 2001 India census, Tamil Nadu had a population of 62,405,679. 66  The sex ratio of the state is 987 with 31,400,909 males and 31,004,770 females. There are a total of 14,665,983 households. 66  The total children under the age of 6 is 7,235,160. A total of 11,857,504 people constituting 21.49 per cent of the total population belonged to Scheduled Castes (SC) and 651,321 people constituting 1.18 per cent of the population belonged to Scheduled tribes (ST). 66
India has a human development index calculated as 0.619, while the corresponding figure for Tamil Nadu is 0.736, placing it among the top states in the country. 67  68  The life expectancy at birth for males is 65.2 years and for females it is 67.6 years. 69  However, it has a high level of poverty especially in the rural areas. As of 2004–2005, the poverty line was set at INR 351.86/month for rural areas and INR 547.42/month for urban areas. Poverty in the state dropped from 51.7 per cent in 1983 to 21.1 per cent in 2001 70  For the period 2004–2005, the Trend in Incidence of Poverty in the state was 22.5 per cent compared with the national figure of 27.5 per cent. The World Bank is currently assisting the state in reducing poverty, High drop-out and low completion of secondary schools continue to hinder the quality of training in the population. Other problems include class, gender, inter-district and urban-rural disparities. Based on URP – Consumption for the period 2004–2005, percentage of the state's population Below Poverty Line was 27.5 per cent. The Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative ranks Tamil Nadu to have a Multidimensional Poverty Index of 0.141, which is in the level of Ghana among the developing countries. 71  Corruption is a major problem in the state with Transparency International ranking it the second most corrupt among the states of India. 72
Religion
Religions in Tamil Nadu 73
Religion Percent
Hinduism
  
88.3%
Christianity
  
6.1%
Islam
  
5.6%
Others
  
0.3%


Erwadi dargah at Erwadi in Ramanathapuram district an Islamic pilgrimage centre.
About 89 per cent of the population in Tamil Nadu are Hindus and the state is home to the core schools of medieval and modern Hinduism as well as several non-mainstream Hindu movements. These include Saiva Siddhanta, Adi_Shankara's Advaita vedanta , Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita, Alvars' Sri Vaishnavism, Ayya-Vazhi and Saivisim. Several important Hindu Tamil figures became important figures for Hinduism as a whole. In modern times, well known figures for Hinduism in the state include Ramana Maharishi and the Kanchi Sankaracharya. All Hindu deities in various forms and a large number of village deities are worshiped by Hindus in Tamil Nadu. Murugan is considered to be the Tamil God. Tamil Nadu dominates the list of largest Hindu Temples in the world which include the Srirangam Ranganathaswamy temple, Madurai Meenakshi Amman Temple, Ekambareswarar Temple at Kanchipuram, Chidambaram Nataraja Temple, Tiruvannamalai Arunachaleswar Temple among others. The emblem of Government of Tamil Nadu depicts the Gopuram (gateway tower) of the Andal Temple at Srivilliputhur.


Thiruvannamalai Annamalaiyar temple
Christians and Muslims together form close to 12 per cent of the population. Christians are mainly concentrated in the southern districts of Kanyakumari (54 per cent of the population in 2001), Thoothukudi (17 per cent in 2001) and Tirunelveli (11 per cent in 2001). St. Thomas Mount in Chennai, the place where St. Thomas, one of the disciples of Jesus, was believed to have been martyred, is an important pilgrimage site for Indian Christians. The Santhome Basilica, widely believed by Christians in India to have been built atop the tomb of St. Thomas, and the Vailankanni Basilica of Our Lady of Good Health are churches revered by Christians in India. The Church of South India and the Pentecostal Mission Church are headquartered in Chennai.


The Basilica of Our Lady of Good Health at Velankanni is a Christian pilgrimage centre.
Muslims constitute close to 6% of the total population of Tamil Nadu and they are mainly concentrated in following Districts.Ramanathapuram, Nagappattinam, Vellore, Tuticorin, Madurai and Tirunelveli. Among Muslims, 97.5 per cent are Sunni and the rest are Shias. The Sunnis adhere to either Hanafi or Shafi schools of thought. Erwadi in Ramanathapuram district and Nagore in Nagapattinam district are important pilgrimage sites for Muslims. Kazimar Big Mosque in Kazimar Street, Madurai and Karpudaiyar masjid in Kayalpatnam are among the earlier mosques in Tamil Nadu. Samanars or Tamil Jains have a legacy dating back 250 BCE. They made significant contributions to Tamil literature. According to the 2001 census there were 83,359 Jains in Tamil Nadu. Jains make up 0.13 per cent of the population. Scheduled castes and Scheduled tribes comprise 19 per cent and 1 per cent of the population respectively. Though an overwhelming percentage of SC/ST population identify themselves as Hindu, the SC/STs are enumerated separately in the census and not as a subgroup of Hinduism. 74  An anti-conversion law came into force in 2002. However, the law was repealed in June 2004 after the defeat of the Bharatiya Janata Party led coalition in the 2004 elections. 75
Language
Tamil is the official language of Tamil Nadu. English is also in common usage as an official language of India. When India adopted national standards, Tamil was the very first language to be recognised as a classical language of India. 76  Minority languages include Telugu (5.65 per cent), Malayalam (0.89 per cent), Kannada (2.68 per cent), Urdu (1.51 per cent), Gujarati / Saurashtri (0.32 per cent), Hindi (0.30 per cent) and Marathi (0.10 per cent). 64  As of the 2001 Census, Tamil is spoken as the first language by 89.43 per cent of the population followed by Telugu by 5.65 per cent, Kannada by 2.68 per cent, Urdu by 1.51 per cent and Malayalam by 0.89 per cent. 64
Education

Main article: Education in Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu is one of the most literate states in India. 77  Tamil Nadu has performed reasonably well in terms of literacy growth during the decade 2001–2011. A survey conducted by the Industry body Assocham ranks Tamil Nadu top among Indian states with about 100 per cent Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in primary and upper primary education. One of the basic limitations for improvement in education in the state is the rate of absence of teachers in public schools, which at 21.4 per cent is significant. 78  The analysis of primary school education in the state by Pratham shows a low drop-off rate but poor quality of state education compared to other states. 79  Tamil Nadu has 37 universities, 455 engineering colleges, citation needed  449 Polytechnic Colleges 80  and 566 arts and science colleges, 34335 elementary schools, 5167 high schools, 5054 higher secondary schools and 5000 hospitals. Some of the notable educational institutes present in Tamil Nadu are Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing Kancheepuram, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, International Institute of Market Research and Analytics (IIMRA), Madras Institute of Technology, College of Engineering, Guindy, PSG College of Technology - Coimbatore, Coimbatore Institute of Technology - Coimbatore, Government College of Technology - Coimbatore, Thiagarajar College of Engineering - Madurai, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Chennai, SRM University, University of Madras, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda College Loyola College, Kilpauk Medical College, Madras Medical College,Stanley Medical College, Christian Medical College, Thanjavur Medical College, Thanjavur, SASTRA, Vellore Institute of Technology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University and Sathyabama University.


District level literacy (2011 data)
Tamil Nadu now has 69 per cent reservation in educational institutions for socially backward section of the society, the highest among all Indian states. 81
The Midday Meal Scheme program in Tamil Nadu, initiated by Kamaraj, was expanded considerably during the rule of the AIADMK by MGR in 1983, although the state is among the 12 states in India that have an alarming level of hunger, according to the 2008 Global Hunger Index. 82  83
Culture



Kolam – a Traditional art form of the Tamil people
Main articles: Tamil people, Temples of Tamil Nadu, and Tamil literature
Tamil Nadu has a long tradition of venerable culture. Tamil Nadu is known for its rich tradition of literature, music and dance which continue to flourish today. Unique cultural features like Bharatanatyam (dance), Tanjore painting, 84  and Tamil architecture were developed and continue to be practised in Tamil Nadu.  85
Literature
Most early Tamil literary works are in verse form, with prose not becoming more common until later periods. Throughout its history, Tamil literature has sought to inform and inspire, educate and entertain.
Notable examples of Tamil poetry include the Tirukkural, written during the Tamil Sangams period. The poem encompasses a universal outlook, as the author, Tiruvalluvar, does not mention his religion, land, or the audience for his work. He is often portrayed as a holy saint of Tamil Nadu today. Ancient Tamil literature is predominantly secular and deals with everyday life in the Tamil Context.The only religious poems among the shorter poems occur in paripaatal. The rest of the corpus of Sangam literature deals with human relationship and emotions. 86
கேடில் விழுச்செல்வம் கல்வி யொருவற்கு
மாடல்ல மற்றை யவை
(திருக்குறள் – 400)

Learning is a wealth that none could destroy
Nothing else gives genuine joy
(Tirukkural: 400)
Education in Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu is one of the most literate states in India. 77  Tamil Nadu has performed reasonably well in terms of literacy growth during the decade 2001–2011. A survey conducted by the Industry body Assocham ranks Tamil Nadu top among Indian states with about 100 per cent Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in primary and upper primary education. One of the basic limitations for improvement in education in the state is the rate of absence of teachers in public schools, which at 21.4 per cent is significant. 78  The analysis of primary school education in the state by Pratham shows a low drop-off rate but poor quality of state education compared to other states. 79  Tamil Nadu has 37 universities, 455 engineering colleges, citation needed  449 Polytechnic Colleges 80  and 566 arts and science colleges, 34335 elementary schools, 5167 high schools, 5054 higher secondary schools and 5000 hospitals. Some of the notable educational institutes present in Tamil Nadu are Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Indian Institute of Information Technology Design & Manufacturing Kancheepuram, National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, International Institute of Market Research and Analytics (IIMRA), Madras Institute of Technology, College of Engineering, Guindy, PSG College of Technology - Coimbatore, Coimbatore Institute of Technology - Coimbatore, Government College of Technology - Coimbatore, Thiagarajar College of Engineering - Madurai, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Chennai, SRM University, University of Madras, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda College Loyola College, Kilpauk Medical College, Madras Medical College,Stanley Medical College, Christian Medical College, Thanjavur Medical College, Thanjavur, SASTRA, Vellore Institute of Technology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University and Sathyabama University.


District level literacy (2011 data)
Tamil Nadu now has 69 per cent reservation in educational institutions for socially backward section of the society, the highest among all Indian states. 81
The Midday Meal Scheme program in Tamil Nadu, initiated by Kamaraj, was expanded considerably during the rule of the AIADMK by MGR in 1983, although the state is among the 12 states in India that have an alarming level of hunger, according to the 2008 Global Hunger Index. 82  83
Culture



Kolam – a Traditional art form of the Tamil people
Main articles: Tamil people, Temples of Tamil Nadu, and Tamil literature
Tamil Nadu has a long tradition of venerable culture. Tamil Nadu is known for its rich tradition of literature, music and dance which continue to flourish today. Unique cultural features like Bharatanatyam (dance), Tanjore painting, 84  and Tamil architecture were developed and continue to be practised in Tamil Nadu.  85
Literature
Most early Tamil literary works are in verse form, with prose not becoming more common until later periods. Throughout its history, Tamil literature has sought to inform and inspire, educate and entertain.
Notable examples of Tamil poetry include the Tirukkural, written during the Tamil Sangams period. The poem encompasses a universal outlook, as the author, Tiruvalluvar, does not mention his religion, land, or the audience for his work. He is often portrayed as a holy saint of Tamil Nadu today. Ancient Tamil literature is predominantly secular and deals with everyday life in the Tamil Context.The only religious poems among the shorter poems occur in paripaatal. The rest of the corpus of Sangam literature deals with human relationship and emotions. 86
கேடில் விழுச்செல்வம் கல்வி யொருவற்கு
மாடல்ல மற்றை யவை
(திருக்குறள் – 400)

Learning is a wealth that none could destroy
Nothing else gives genuine joy
(Tirukkural: 400)

The first Tamil printing press was established at Tarangambadi by the Danish missionaries. During the Indian freedom struggle, many Tamil poets and writers sought to provoke national spirit, social equity and secularist thoughts among the common man, notably Subramanya Bharathy and Bharathidasan.
Festivals and traditions


Overflowing during cooking of Pongal indicates overflowing of joy and prosperity.
Pongal, also called as Tamizhar Thirunaal (festival of Tamils) or Makara Sankranti elsewhere in India, a four-day harvest festival is one of the most widely celebrated festivals throughout Tamil Nadu. 87  The Tamil language saying Thai Pirandhal Vazhi Pirakkum — literally meaning, the birth of the month of Thai will pave way for new opportunities – is often quoted with reference to this festival. The first day, Bhogi Pongal, is celebrated by throwing away and destroying old clothes and materials by setting them on fire to mark the end of the old and emergence of the new. The second day, Surya Pongal, is the main day which falls on the first day of the tenth Tamil month Thai (14 January or 15 January in western calendar). The third day, Maattu Pongal, is meant to offer thanks to the cattle, as they provide milk and are used to plough the lands.Jallikattu, a bull taming contest, marks the main event of this day. Alanganallur is famous for its Jallikattu 88  89  contest usulaly held on 3rd day of Pongal. During this final day, Kaanum Pongal – the word "kaanum", means 'to view' in Tamil. In 2011 the Madras High Court Bench ordered the cockfight at Santhapadi and Modakoor Melbegam villages permitted during the Pongal festival while disposing of a petition filed attempting to ban the cockfight. 90


Erwadi dargah at Erwadi in Ramanathapuram district. A place of Shaheed Badushah
The first month in the Tamil calendar is Chittirai and the first day of this month in mid-April is celebrated as Tamil New Year. Thiruvalluvar Calendar is 31 years ahead of Gregorian Calendar, that is 2000 CE in Gregorian calendar is represented as 2031 in Thiruvalluvar Calendar. Aadi Perukku is celebrated on the 18th day of the Tamil month Aadi, which celebrates the rising of the water level in the river Cauvery.


Mahamagam Festival is a festival celebrated once in twelve years in Tamil Nadu. Mahamagam Festival, which is held at Kumbakonam. This festival is also called as Kumbamela of South.
Apart from the major festivals, in every village and town of Tamil Nadu, the inhabitants celebrate festivals for the local gods once a year and the time varies from place to place. Most of these festivals are related to the goddess Maariyamman, the mother goddess of rain. Other major Hindu festivals including Deepavali (Death of Narakasura), Ayudha Poojai, Saraswathi Poojai (Dasara), Krishna Jayanthi and Vinayaka Chathurthi are also celebrated. Eid ul-Fitr, Bakrid, Milad un Nabi, Muharram are celebrated by Muslims whereas Christmas, Good Friday, Easter are celebrated by Christians in the state. Mahamagam a bathing festival at Kumbakonam in Tamil Nadu is clebrated once in 12 years. People from all the corners of the country come to Kumbakonam for the festival. This festival is also called as Kumbamela of South. 91  92
Music
See also: Ancient Tamil music and Carnatic music
The Kings of ancient Thamizhagam created sangams for Iyal Isai Nadagam (Literature, Music and Drama). Music played a major role in sangams. Music in Tamil Nadu had different forms. In villages where farming was the primary occupation, women who worked in the fields used to sing kulavai songs. Odhuvars, Sthanikars or Kattalaiyars offer short musical programmes in the temples by singing the devotional Thevaram songs. In sharp contrast with the restrained and intellectual nature of Carnatic music, Tamil folk music tends to be much more exuberant. Popular forms of Tamil folk music include the Villuppāṭṭu, a form of music performed with a bow,the urumee mellam or Naiyandi mellam which incorporates the use of the urumee and the Nāṭṭuppur̲appāṭṭu, ballads that convey folklore and folk history. Some of the leading Tamil folk artists in the early 21st century are Pushpuvanam Kuppuswamy, Dr. Vijayalakshmi Navaneethakrishnan, Chinnaponnu, Paravai muniammal etc.


Nadhaswaram and Thavil players
Carnatic music is the classical music form of southern India. This is one of the world's oldest & richest musical traditions. The Trinity of Carnatic music Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri were from Tamil Nadu. Thyagarajar Aaradhanai (worship) takes place every year in the month of Marghazhi in Thiruvaiyaru all carnatic musicians render their obesiance to Saint Thyagarajar by singing his compositions. The composers belonging to the Tamil Trinity, namely Muthu Thandavar (?1560 – ?1640), Arunachala Kavi (1712–1779) and Marimutthu Pillai (1717–1787) composed hundreds of devotional songs in Tamil and helped in the evolution of Carnatic music. Chennai hosts a large cultural event, the annual Madras Music Season during December–January, which includes performances by hundreds of artists all over the city.
In terms of modern cine-music, Ilaiyaraaja was a prominent composer of film music in Tamil cinema during the late 1970s and 1980s. His work highlighted Tamil folk lyricism and introduced broader western musical sensibilities to the south Indian musical mainstream. Tamil Nadu is also the home of the double Oscar Winner A.R. Rahman 93  94  95  who has composed film music in Tamil, Telugu, Hindi films, English and Chinese films, was once referred to by Time magazine as "The Mozart of Madras".
Arts and dance
Tamils have a large number of folk dances. These are performed for every possible occasion, to celebrate the arrival of seasons, birth of a child, weddings and festivals. Tamil dance is closely intertwined with the Tamil theatrical tradition.


A Bharatanatyam dancer.
The most celebrated of these dances is the karakattam. In its religious form, the dance is performed in front of an image of the goddess Mariamman. The dancer bears on his or her head a brass pot filled with uncooked rice, decorated with flowers and surrounded by a bamboo frame, and tumbles and leaps to the rhythm of a song without spilling a grain. Karakattam is usually performed to a special type of song known as temmanguppāṭṭu or thevar pāṭṭu, a folk song in the mode of a lover speaking to his beloved, to the accompaniment of a nadaswaram and melam.
Other Tamil folk dances include mayilāṭṭam, where the dancers tie a string of peacock feathers around their waist; ōyilāttam, danced in a circle while waving small pieces of cloth of various colours; poikkal kuthiraiyaaṭṭam, where the dancers use dummy horses; manattam, where the dancers imitate the graceful leaping of deer; paraiyāṭṭam, a dance to the sound of rhythmical drumbeats, and thīppandāṭṭam, a dance involving playing with burning wooden torches.
Bharatanatyam is a classical dance form originating from Tamil Nadu. Prior to the colonial perriod, it used to be performed in Hindu temples by Devadasis. In this form, it as also been called sadir or chinna melam. Many of the ancient sculptures in Hindu temples are based on Bharata Natyam dance postures. Bharatanatyam is a traditional dance-form known for its grace, purity, tenderness, and sculpturesque poses. It continues to be a popular dance style at present times and is practised by male and female dancers all over India. Terukkuttu or Kattaikkuttu is a traditional form of Tamil street theatre folk dance/drama.
Film industry
Main article: Tamil cinema
Tamil Nadu is also home to the Tamil film industry, often colloquially referred to as 'Kollywood'. It is known for being the Second largest film industry in terms of revenue and worldwide distribution, in India after Bollywood. 96  It is based at Kodambakkam in Chennai city.
Cuisine


Traditional Tamil lunch served in banana leaf.
Main article: Tamil cuisine
Tamil cuisine is typical of south Indian cuisine, in that rice and rice-derived dishes form the major portion of a diet (see rice and curry). There are regional sub-varieties namely Chettinadu, Kongunadu, Madurai, Tirunelveli varieties etc. Traditionally, food is served on a banana leaf instead of a plate and eaten with the right hand.
Rice is the staple food of Tamils and is typically eaten mixed with coconut chutney sambhar (with or without ghee), vegetarian or non-vegetarian kulambu, rasam, curd and buttermilk. This is accompanied with various vegetarian and/or non-vegetarian dishes like kootu, aviyal, poriyal, appalam, varuval, peratal, kothsu, varieties of pickles and chicken, mutton, or fish fry.


Idly and Vadai served with Sambar.
Breakfast and snack items include dosai, Adai, idly, vadai, pongal, appam (aappam), paniyaram, puttu, uppumavu (uppuma), santhakai (a sort of noodles), idiyappam and uthappam. These items are eaten along with sambar, varieties of chatni and podi. Traditionally prepared filter coffee is unique in taste and popular all over the state.
The Chettinad region is famous for its spicy non-vegetarian cuisine, while Ambur and Dindigul are known for their Biriyani. Sweet items that are native to Tamil Nadu are Athirasam, Chakkarai Pongal (prepared during Pongal) and Kuli Paniyaram. The city of Thirunelveli is renowned for its unique sweetmeat, Thirunelveli Halwa, while Palani is known for its Panchamirtham.
Economy

Main articles: Economy of Tamil Nadu, List of conglomerates in Tamil Nadu, and List of rivers of Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu is the second largest contributor to India's GDP. Tamil Nadu's gross state domestic product for the year 2011-2012 was 4.28 lakh crore or $145,868 Million. The state has shown a growth of 9.4 per cent in the year 2011-2012. 97  Tamil Nadu is the second most industrialised state in India. 98  It ranks third in foreign direct investment (FDI) approvals (cumulative 1991–2002) of INR 225,826 million ($5,000 million), next only to Maharashtra and Delhi constituting 9.12 per cent of the total FDI in the country. 99  The per capita income in 2007–2008 for the state was INR 72,993 ranking third among states with a population over 10 million and has steadily been above the national average. 100
Gross State Domestic Product in INR Crores at Constant Prices 101
Year GSDP Growth Rate Share in India
2000–01
142,065
5.87%
7.62%
2001–02
139,842
-1.56%
7.09%
2002–03
142,295
1.75%
6.95%
2003–04
150,815
5.99%
6.79%
2004–05
219,003
11.45%
7.37%
2005–06
249,567
13.96%
7.67%
2006–07
287,530
15.21%
8.07%
2007–08
305,157
6.13%
7.83%
2008–09
320,085
4.89%
7.70%
2009–10
350,258
9.43%
7.77%
2010–11
391,372
11.74%
8.01%
2011–12
428,109
9.39%
8.20%
According to the 2011 Census, Tamil Nadu is the most urbanised state in India (49 per cent), accounting for 9.6 per cent of the urban population while only comprising 6 per cent of India’s total population and . 102  and is the most urbanised state in India.CITEREFThe_Hindu18_May_2008 Services contributes to 45 per cent of the economic activity in the state, followed by manufacturing at 34 per cent and agriculture at 21 per cent. Government is the major investor in the state with 51 per cent of total investments, followed by private Indian investors at 29.9 per cent and foreign private investors at 14.9 per cent. Tamil Nadu has a network of about 113 industrial parks and estates offering developed plots with supporting infrastructure.
According to the publications of the Tamil Nadu government the Gross State Domestic Product at Constant Prices (Base year 2004–2005) for the year 2011–2012 is INR 428,109 crores, an increase of 9.39 per cent over the previous year. The per capita income at current price is INR 72,993.
Agriculture
Tamil Nadu has historically been an agricultural state and is a leading producer of agricultural products in India. In 2008, Tamil Nadu was India's fifth biggest producer of Rice. The total cultivated area in the State was 5.60 million hectares in 2009–10. 103  The Cauvery delta region is known as the Rice Bowl of South India. 104  In terms of production, Tamil Nadu accounts for 10 per cent in fruits and 6 per cent in vegetables, in India. 105  Annual food grains production in the year 2007–08 was 100.35 lakh mt. 103  Mango and banana are the leading fruit crops in Tamil Nadu accounting for over 87 per cent of the total fruit production. The main vegetables grown are tapioca, tomato, onion, brinjal (eggplant), and drumstick. Tamil Nadu is also a leading state in the production of flowers with the total production of horticultural crops standing at INR 99.47 Lakhs during 2003–04. The main flowers grown in Tamil Nadu are jasmine, mullai, chrysanthemum, marigold and rose.
The state is the largest producer of bananas, flowers, 105  tapioca, 105  the second largest producer of mango, 105  natural rubber, 106  coconut, groundnut and the third largest producer of coffee, sapota, 105  Tea 107  and Sugarcane. Tamil Nadu's sugarcane yield per hectare is the highest in India. The state has 17,000 hectares of land under oil palm cultivation, the second highest in India. 108

The first Tamil printing press was established at Tarangambadi by the Danish missionaries. During the Indian freedom struggle, many Tamil poets and writers sought to provoke national spirit, social equity and secularist thoughts among the common man, notably Subramanya Bharathy and Bharathidasan.
Festivals and traditions 

Sunday, 15 September 2013

Paddy fields at Nagercoil.

Paddy fields at Nagercoil.
Leather industry Tamil Nadu is the home to Dr M.S. Swaminathan, known as the "father of the Green Revolution" in India. 109  Tamil Nadu Agricultural University with its seven colleges and thirty two research stations spread over the entire state contributes to evolving new crop varieties and technologies and disseminating through various extension agencies. Among states in India, Tamil Nadu is one of the leaders in livestock, poultry and fisheries production. Tamil Nadu had the second largest number of poultry amongst all the states and accounted for 17.7 per cent of the total poultry population in India. 110  In 2003–2004, Tamil Nadu had produced 37,836 lakhs of eggs, which was the second highest in India representing 9.37 per cent of the total egg production in the country. 111  With the third longest coastline in India, Tamil Nadu represented 27.54 per cent of the total value of fish and fishery products exported by India in 2006.
The state accounts for 70 per cent of leather tanning capacity in India and 38 per cent of leather footwear and components. The exports from Tamil Nadu are valued at about US $ 762 million, which accounts for 42 per cent of Indian leather exports. Hundreds of leather and tannery industries are located around Vellore, Dindigul and Erode its nearby towns such as Ranipet, Ambur, Perundurai and Vaniyambadi. The Vellore district is the top exporter of finished leather goods in the country. That leather accounts for more than 37 per cent of the country's Export of Leather and Leather related products such as finished leathers, shoes, garments, gloves and so on. The tanning industry in India has a total installed capacity of 225 million pieces of hide and skins of which Tamil Nadu alone contributes to an inspiring 70 per cent. Leather industry occupies a pride of place in the industrial map of Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu enjoys a leading position with 40 per cent share in India 's export. It currently employs about 2.5 million persons Leather exports by the end of the year 2000–2001 were INR9000 crores. Central Leather Research Institute (CLRI), a CSIR research laboratory is located in Chennai, the state capital. Footwear Design & Development Institute (FDDI) -CHENNAIFDDI / Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Government of India, Mission FDDI is the first training Institute to achieve the prestigious ISO 9001 and ISO 14001 certification. The Institute believes that dedication, sincerity and hard work leads to excellence and therefore, its motto is "Dedication to Excellence." Description
FDDI, Chennai Campus is located at Irungattukottai near SIPCOT Footwear Park, 40 minutes drive from Chennai. The campus area spread over 15 acres is situated in a calm and serene surrounding with the state-of-the art Campus housing & buildings having a built-up area of more than 4 lacs sq. ft. Campus has an excellent infrastructure and modern facilities, which assists in conducting the various academic programmes. The Institute has a state-of-the-art library, computer lab, well furnished and centrally air-conditioned building, class rooms and lecture halls, latest multi-media audio-video, educational support for teaching and a fully equipped auditorium. The Campus is equipped with International Testing Laboratory.
Chennai is the biggest hub of the world leather industry. Every exporter had an office in Chennai & most of the leather & footwear industry is located in and around Chennai. Tamil Nadu accounts for 30 per cent of leather exports and about 70 per cent of leather production in the country. The large scale presence of the Tanning industry has resulted in Tamil Nadu becoming a dominant production centre in the country for leather and leather based products. In Tamil Nadu 0.5 Million people are employed in the industries dealing with leather and leather based products. With the expansion and huge investment coming up in this from the national and international reputed brands the employment opportunities in this sector is going to increase many fold. It is estimated that leather industry will require at least one million additional manpower in the next five years. The skill gaps at the level of designers, technologists and management professionals are more stark and demanding. It is where the prospective professionals can take advantage of the courses being offered by FDDI Chennai and opt for lucrative and promising career jobs.
Textiles The word roti is derived from the Sanskrit word ?????? (ro?ika), meaning "bread".4 Names in other languages are Hindi: ????; Assamese: ????; Nepali : ????; Bengali: ????; Sinhala: ????; Marathi: ????; Oriya: ????; Malayalam: ??????; Kannada: ??????; Telugu: ??????; Tamil: ??????; Urdu: ?????; Dhivehi: ????; Punjabi: ????,?????; Thai: ????. It is also known as rotli in Gujarati, maani in Sindhi and phulka in Punjabi and Saraiki.
South Asia

See also: Indian breads, Naan, Paratha, Chapati, and Makki di roti
Many different variations of flat breads are found in many cultures across the globe, from South Asia to the Americas. The traditional flat bread originating from the South Asia is commonly known as roti; pronounced "rho tee". It is normally eaten with cooked vegetables or curries as in the goat roti; it can be called a carrier for curries or cooked vegetables. It is made most often from wheat flour, cooked on a flat or slightly concave iron griddle called a tawa. It is similar to the tortilla in appearance. Like breads around the world, roti is a staple accompaniment to other foods, and may be spread with ghee (clarified butter). In Iran, the two variants of this bread are: khaboos5 and lavash. These two breads (the former of which is almost exactly prepared like Indian roti) are quite similar to other South Asian rotis.

Plain roti paratha



Indian thali with chapati



Tandoori roti served with other dishes in an Indian restaurant



A chef preparing rumali roti in India

In Sri Lanka, probably the most popular type of roti is pol roti (coconut roti), made of wheat flour, kurakkan flour or a mixture of both, and scraped coconut. Sometimes, chopped green chillies and onion are added to the mixture before cooking. These are usually thicker and harder than other roti types. They are usually eaten with curries, or some types of sambol or lunu miris and considered a main meal rather than a supplement.
Southeast Asia



A Thai "???????????? /r?ti? klûaj k?àj/": roti with banana and egg, drizzled with sweetened condensed milk


Kerala / Ceylon roti (porotta) served with curry
In Indonesia, Malaysia, and Somalia, the term encompasses all forms of bread, including western-style bread, as well as the traditional Punjabi breads.
In Thailand, "????" refers to the maida paratha—known in Indonesia as roti maryam, roti cane or roti konde, Malaysia as roti canai and in Singapore as roti prata—which is sometimes drizzled with condensed milk, rolled up, and eaten as a hot snack, or fried with egg as a larger dish.
West Indies

In the West Indies, roti is referred to in two ways, the roti itself and the roti used as wrap with any sort of savory stuffing. The traditional way of eating roti among Indo-Caribbeans at home is still to break the roti with their hands and to use it to sop up curry or stew.
The roti wrap is the commercialization of roti and curry as a fast-food item in the Caribbean. The wrap roti originated in southern Trinidad. It was first created in the mid-1940s by Sackina Karamath who later founded Hummingbird Roti Shop in San Fernando, Trinidad, to make it easier and faster to eat the items, as the individuals' hands would not get as dirty. In Trinidad and Tobago, various wrapped "roti" are served, including chicken, conch, beef, and vegetable. Shrimp and goat are also available. Because the roti acts as a wrap, numerous combinations can be made, but the most popular tend to be curried items.
Later, when Guyanese and Trinidadians moved to other Caribbean islands or to North American cities like Toronto, New York City, and Montreal, the wrapped roti is the version that most non-Indo-Caribbean people know as roti. It has also become popular among non-West Indians. As the popularity of the West Indian style roti grew in more recent times, some individuals and restaurants/commercial companies may now refer to a plain roti by itself as "roti shell or skin" to avoid confusion.
Roti features prominently in the diets of many West Indian countries, especially Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana and Suriname. West Indian roti are primarily made from wheat flour, baking powder, salt, and water, and cooked on a tava. Certain rotis are also made with butter. Several types of roti are made in Guyana, Trinidad, and where ever else they settled.
Trinidad and Leeward Islands
Food Description
Sada roti This is a plain roti, made of white flour. Because it is the simplest roti to make, it is the most commonly consumed roti in Trinidad. It is a popular breakfast option in Trinidad, in combination with tomato and eggplant, and other vegetable dishes.
Paratha roti A roti made with butter, usually ghee (Clarified Butter) but any butter can be used with it, the roti is put onto the tawa and butter is spread out onto it, partha eventually turns brown, and has more taste than the plain traditional roti, paratha is traditionally eaten with fried eggs and/or a cup of tea. Ghee is rubbed on both sides, then it is cooked on tawa (a round, flat metal griddle used in Indian cooking). This gives the roti a crisp outside. When it almost finished cooking, the cook begins to beat the roti while it is on the tawa, causing it to crumble. It is also called 'Buss-Up-Shut' in Trinidad.
Puri A roti where two layers are rolled out together and cooked on the tava. It is also rubbed with oil while cooking. It is called dosti roti because the word dosti means friendship in Hindi. This type of roti is eaten in Guyana with a special halva when a child is born.
Dhalpuri6 A roti with a stuffing of ground yellow split peas, cumin (geera), garlic, and pepper. The split peas are boiled until they are al dente and then ground in a mill. The cumin is toasted until black and also ground. The stuffing is pushed into the roti dough, and sealed. When rolled flat, the filling is distributed within the roti. It is cooked on the tava and rubbed with oil for ease of cooking. This is the most popular roti.
Wrap roti A popular sandwich made by folding a curry stew inside of a Dhalpuri roti skin. Curry stew normally contains potatoes and a meat of some sort like chicken, goat, beef or shrimp.
Piper roti A wrap roti that usually contains only potatoes and gravy, and scrap meat. Piper roti got its name by being a cheaper alternative to purchasing a regular roti. The term "piper" is the local slang used to describe a drug addict; most of his money is spent on drugs and the little he has remaining will purchase food.
Aloopuri A roti similar to a Dhalpuri but with aloo (potato) substituted for the dhal. The aloo is boiled, milled and spices and seasonings are added before being sealed in the dough. This aloo filling is also used when making aloo pie or aloo choka.
Fry Bake Similar to making a Sada roti. After the dough is rolled, instead of cooking it on the tava as you would with the sada roti, the rolled dough is cut into quarters and each piece is deep fried until golden. The dough usually rises in the oil so the finished product can be cut open and filled with various fillings before it's consumed. Fry Bake by definition can be considered a "puri", as compared to a "Dhal puri" which in reality is a type of roti.
Bake Made with butter, coconut milk and grated coconut meat. Sometimes referred to as "Creole Bake". The finished dough is placed in a round cake pan and baked until done.


Guyanese roti, clapped and ready to be eaten.
Depending on where Indians settled in Guyana, foods can be different. In some parts of Guyana, Dosti Roti is made. Indo-Guyanese food as a whole can be different from their Trinidadian brothers, including the names of many items.
A small amount of fat is placed in each piece of dough before it is rolled out to make the roti softer. Usually vegetable oil is used, but butter, or margarine can also be used. Ghee is not used in everyday Guyanese cooking, and is only used by the Hindus on religious occasions. The Roti is usually clapped by hand or beaten a bit, hot off the tava, so it softens but does not break.
A good roti in Guyana is one that is very soft, with layers (almost like pastry layers if possible), which remains whole. An individual would be ridiculed if the roti breaks apart.
The type of roti one gets is determined by what is placed in the dough before it is rolled out. Various types include Dhalpuri, aloo (potato) roti, and even sugar(to keep the kids busy, while the mother finishes cooking).
Among the Indo-Guyanese, a rolled out thin flat dough like a roti that is deep fried in ghee is called a puri, and is only made for Hindu religious gatherings. Therefore a Dalpuri is not really a puri, as a puri and a roti are two different things.
Another item prepared like roti is bake or bakes or floats. A Guyanese or Trinidadian fry bake seems to be more similar to an Indian puri. Bake is made with butter or margarine and has a different ratio of flour to fat. It is made much quicker than roti and is usually made in the mornings. Dough is rolled out and cut into shapes or rolled into small rounds. Guyanese bakes or floats are fried, but bakes from other parts of the West Indies can be baked in an oven. Bake are usually paired with a quick fryup for breakfast or dinner, stewed saltfish, or eggs (western style — onions, tomatoes, green peppers). Bakes are also made in other parts of the West Indies including Trinidad, Barbados and St. Vincent.
In Suriname roti refers mainly to roti dahlpuri or roti aloopuri. It is most often eaten with chicken curry. Roti can also refer to a dish of stuffed and spiced roti wraps. It is custom to eat this dish by hand. Due to mass emigration of Surinam Hindustani in the 1970s, roti became a popular take-out dish in the Netherlands. It usually includes chicken curry, potatoes, a boiled egg and various vegetables, most notably the kousenband or yardlong bean. Another variation includes shrimp and aubergine. The meat with gravy, potatoes, egg and yardlong beans are served side by side on a plate, with the aloopura folded in fours on top. One then has the option to spice the dish with a very hot sambol made of Madame Jeanette peppers.
Other dishes


A roti wrap with cream cheese and smoked chicken.


2 rolls of lamb roti roll
Roti, pronounced "Rooti" in Cape Town, is also a staple food source amongst many of the Indian, Asian and Cape coloured communities living in South Africa and is either eaten as a flat bread or a wrap with locally made curries.
See also

Portal icon Food portal
Bhatura
Chapati
Kottu Roti
Kulcha
Luchi
Naan
Paratha
Puri
Roti canai
Roti (film)
Wrap roti

Textile mills and engineering industries are present around the city of Coimbatore. It is home to textile, automotive spare parts and motor pump manufacturing units. Cities of Tirupur and Erode are the country's largest exporters of knitwear. 112  They are well known for textile manufacturing industries and exports to such extent that the districts of Coimbatore, Tirupur, Karur, Erode, Namakkal and Salem. Coimbatore is known by whom?  as the "Manchester of South India" for its cotton production. The region around Coimbatore, Tirupur, Karur and Erode is referred to by whom?  as the "Textile Valley of India" with the export from the Tirupur INR 50,000 million ($1,000 million) and Karur generates around INR 35,500 million ($750 million) a year in foreign exchange. 56 per cent of India's total knitwear exports come from Tirupur and Karur make above 60 per cent of India's home textiles. Gobichettipalayam, Pollachi, Theni and Vedasandur are known for its cotton spinning mills. Rajapalayam is famous for its cotton market. Gobichettipalayam is a prominent producer of white silk with the country's first automated silk reeling unit present here. Kanchipuram and Arani are world famous for their pure zari silk sarees and handloom silk weaving industries. Aruppukottai, Salem, and Sathyamangalam are also famous for art-silk sarees. Andipatti, Tiruchengodu, Paramakudi, Kurinjipadi, Chennimalai are major handloom centres. Negamam, Cinnalapatti, Woraiyur, Pochampalli are famous for its soft cotton saree weavings. Madurai is well known by whom?  for its Chungidi cotton saree. Bhavani is famous for carpet.
Automobiles 

Saturday, 14 September 2013

New Delhi and Rajasthan

South Delhi — Defence Colony, Hauz Khas, Green Park, Greater Kailash, Vasant Kunj, Lajpat Nagar, Nehru Place, Malviya Nagar and Kalkaji.
East Delhi — Gandhi Nagar, Preet Vihar, and Vivek Vihar.
North Delhi — Sadar Bazar, University Enclave (Kamla Nagar), Kotwali, and Civil Lines.
West Delhi — Patel Nagar, Rajouri Garden, East Sagarpur and Punjabi Bagh.
Central Delhi — Conaught Place, Khan Market, Chanakyapuri, Karol Bagh and Paharganj.
Old Delhi - Daryaganj, Kashmere Gate, Chandni Chowk, Chawri Bazaar, Lal Quila and Jamu Masjid


History
Delhi is said to be one of the oldest existing cities in the world, along with Jerusalem and Varanasi. Legend estimates it to be over 5,000 years old. Over the millennia, Delhi is said to have been built and destroyed 11 times. The oldest alleged incarnation of the city shows up in the Indian mythological epic Mahabharata as Indraprastha.
Qila Rai Pithora – This dates back to the 10th century A.D. as per available historical records. Also known as Rai Pithora, this city was the capital during the reign of Prithviraj Chauhan, the local hero famous for his first defeating, before finally losing to, the marauding invaders from central Asia (Muhammad Ghori in particular). Chauhan's ancestors are said to have captured the city from the Tomar Rajputs who were cred with founding Delhi. Anangpal, a Tomar ruler possibly created the first known regular fort here called 'Lal Kot', which was taken over by Prithviraj and the city extended. Some of the ruins of the fort ramparts are still visible around Qutab Minar and Mehrauli.
Mehrauli – Muhammad Ghori managed to defeat Prithviraj Chauhan in battle in 1192. Ghori left his slave Qutub-ud-din Aibak as his viceroy, who in turn captured Delhi the subsequent year. After Ghori's death in 1206, Aibak proclaimed himself the ruler of Delhi and founded the slave dynasty. Qutb-ud-din contributed significantly in terms of architecture by getting Mehrauli built. His most prominent contribution is the starting of Qutab Minar. This 72.5 m tall tower was built across three generations and finally completed in 1220AD. A visitor to the Qutab Minar could also see the mausoleum of Kaki, Shamsi Talao and some other mosques. The Slave dynasty ruled until 1290, among them was Razia Sultan who ruled for just three years, but became a historic figure for being the first empress in India.


Hawa Mahal or "Palace of Winds" in Jaipur.
Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, the Hindu Emperor, also known as Hemu in the history of India was born in the village of Machheri in Alwar District in 1501. He won 22 battles against Afghans, from Punjab to Bengal and defeated Akbar's forces twice at Agra and Delhi in 1556,20 before acceeding to the throne of Delhi and establishing 'Hindu Raj' in North India, albeit for a short duration, from Purana Quila in Delhi. He was killed in the Second Battle of Panipat.)
Maharana Pratap of Mewar resisted Akbar in the famous Battle of Haldighati (1576) and later operated from hilly areas of his kingdom. Bhils were Maharana's main allies during these wars. Most of these attacks were repulsed even though the Mughal forces outnumbered Mewar Rajputs in all the wars fought between them. The Haldighati war was fought between 10,000 Mewaris and a 100,000-strong Mughal force (including many Rajputs like Kachwahas from Dhundhar).citation needed


Main articles: Government of Rajasthan and Politics of Rajasthan
The current government in Rajasthan is that of Indian National Congress. The current Chief Minister is Ashok Gehlot. The political life of Rajasthan is dominated by two major parties: Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and Indian National Congress.
Subdivisions



The Jain temple at Ranakpur is in Pali district.
Main article: Districts of Rajasthan
Rajasthan is divided into 33 districts and seven divisions:
Jaipur Division: Jaipur, Alwar, Jhunjhunu, Sikar, Dausa.
Udaipur Division: Udaipur, Banswara, Chittorgarh, Pratapgarh, Dungarpur, Rajsamand
Ajmer Division: Ajmer, Bhilwara, Nagaur, Tonk.
Jodhpur Division: Barmer, Jaisalmer, Jalore, Jodhpur, Pali, Sirohi.
Bikaner Division: Bikaner, Churu, Sri Ganganagar, Hanumangarh.
Kota Division: Baran, Bundi, Jhalawar, Kota.
Bharatpur Division: Bharatpur, Dholpur, Karauli, Sawai Madhopur.
Economy

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An industrial plant near Jodhpur.
Main article: Economy of Rajasthan
Rajasthan's economy is primarily agricultural and pastoral. Wheat and barley are cultivated over large areas, as are pulses, sugarcane, and oilseeds. Cotton and tobacco are the state's cash crops. Rajasthan is among the largest producers of edible oils in India and the second largest producer of oilseeds. Rajasthan is also the biggest wool-producing state in India and the main opium producer and consumer. There are mainly two crop seasons. The water for irrigation comes from wells and tanks. The Indira Gandhi Canal irrigates northwestern Rajasthan.


A marble quarry in Kishangarh Ajmer.
The main industries are mineral based, agriculture based, and textiles. Rajasthan is the second largest producer of polyester fibre in India. The Pali and Bhilwara District produces more cloth than Bhiwandi, Maharashtra and the bhilwara is the largest city in suitings production and export and Pali is largest city in cotton and polyster in blouse pes and rubia production and export. Several prominent chemical and engineering companies are located in the city of Kota, in southern Rajasthan. Rajasthan is pre-eminent in quarrying and mining in India. The Taj Mahal was built from the white marble which was mined from a town called Makrana. The state is the second largest source of cement in India. It has rich salt deposits at Sambhar, copper mines at Khetri, Jhunjhunu and zinc mines at Dariba, Zawar mines at Zawarmala for zinc, Rampura Aghucha (opencast) near Bhilwara. Dimensional stone mining is also undertaken in Rajasthan. Jodhpur sandstone is mostly used in monuments, important buildings and residential buildings. This stone is termed as "chittar patthar".


The Indira Gandhi Canal passes through the Thar Desert near Chhatargarh.
Crude Oil
Rajasthan is presentlywhen? earning INR150 million (~ $2.5 million US) per day as revenue from crude oil sector. This earning is expected to reach INR250 million per day in 2013 (which is an increase of INR100 million or more than 66 percent). The government of India has given permission to extract 300,000 barrels of crude per day from Barmer region which is presently 175,000 barrels per day. Once this limit is achieved Rajasthan will become leader in Crude extraction in Country. Presently Bombay High leads with a production of 250,000 barrels crude per day. Once the limit if 300,000 barrels per day is reached, the overall production of the country will increase by 15 percent. Cairn India is doing the work of exploration and extraction of crude oil in Rajasthan.
Transport


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Rajasthan is connected by many national highways. Most renowned being NH 8, which is India's first 4–8 lane highway. Rajasthan also has an inter-city surface transport system both in terms of railways and bus network. All chief cities are connected by air, rail and road.


The Rajasthan State Road Transport Corporation, formed in 1964, operates a fleet of 5,000 buses from 54 depots across the state.
By Air: There are three main airports at Rajasthan- Jaipur International Airport, Udaipur Airport, and Jodhpur Airport. These airports connect Rajasthan with the major cities of India such as Delhi and Mumbai. There are two other airports in Kota and Jaisalmer, but are not open for commercial/civilian flights yet.
By Rail: Rajasthan is connected with the main cities of India by rail. Jaipur, Kota, Bikaner, Ajmer, Udaipur and Jodhpur are the principal railway stations in Rajasthan. Kota City is the only Electrified Section served by three Rajdhani Expresses and trains to all major cities of India. There is also an international railway, the Thar Express from Jodhpur to Karachi. However, this is not open to foreign nationals currently.
By Road: Rajasthan is well connected to the main cities of the country including Delhi, Ahmedabad and Indore by State and National Highways and served by Rajasthan State Road Transport Corporation (RSRTC)23 and Private operators.
Demographics

UmaidBhawan Exterior 1.jpg
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Rajasthani people

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Language
Rajasthani
Rajasthan Portal
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See also: List of people from Rajasthan
Religion in Rajasthan State
Religion Percent
Hinduism
 ?
88%
Islam
 ?
8%
Sikhism
 ?
1.4%
Jainism
 ?
1.2%
other religions
 ?
0.53%
Rajasthan has a mainly Rajasthani population of approximately 68,621,012. Rajasthan's population is made up mainly of Hindus, who account for 88.8% of the population.24 Muslims make up 8.5%, Sikhs 1.4% and Jains 1.2% of the population.24 The state of Rajasthan is also populated by Sindhis, who came to Rajasthan from Sindh province (now in Pakistan) during the India-Pakistan separation in 1947.
Rajasthani (constitutional status is pending) is the main spoken language of the state, although Hindi and English are used for official purposes.25 It is spoken by 13 million people in Rajasthan and other states of India.26 A number of “tribal” languages are also spoken in Rajasthan.27 Some other languages used in Rajasthan are Gujarati, Sindhi and Punjabi.
Largest cities of Rajasthan with population
Jaipur- 30,73,349
Jodhpur- 10,33,918
Udaipur- 4,51,735
Kota- 10,01,365
Bikaner- 6,47,804
Ajmer- 5,42,580
Sriganganagar-3,70,768
Bhilwara- 3,60,009
Alwar- 3,15,310
Bharatpur - 2,52,109
Culture


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Main article: Culture of Rajasthan
Rajasthan is culturally rich and has artistic and cultural traditions which reflect the ancient Indian way of life. There is rich and varied folk culture from villages which is often depicted and is symbolic of the state. Highly cultivated classical music and dance with its own distinct style is part of the cultural tradition of Rajasthan. The music is uncomplicated and songs depict day-to-day relationships and chores, more often focused around fetching water from wells or ponds.


Rajasthani Thali
Rajasthani cooking was influenced by both the war-like lifestyles of its inhabitants and the availability of ingredients in this arid region. Food that could last for several days and could be eaten without heating was preferred. Scarcity of water and fresh green vegetables have all had their effect on the cooking. It is known for its snacks like Bikaneri Bhujia, Mirchi Bada, Pyaaj Kachori and ghevar. Other famous dishes include bajre ki roti (millet bread) and lashun ki chutney (hot garlic paste), mawa kachori from Jodhpur, alwar ka mawa, malpauas from Pushkar and rassgollas from Bikaner. Originating for the Marwar region of the state is the concept Marwari Bhojnalaya, or vegetarian restaurants, today found in many part of India, which offer vegetarian food of the Marwari people.


Up-down dolls are found in the road-side shops of Jaisalmer.
The Ghoomar dance from Udaipur and Kalbeliya dance of Jaisalmer have gained international recognition. Folk music is a vital part of Rajasthani culture. Kathputli, Bhopa, Chang, Teratali, Ghindr, Kachchhighori, Tejaji, etc. are the examples of the traditional Rajasthani culture. Folk songs are commonly ballads which relate heroic deeds and love stories; and religious or devotional songs known as bhajans and banis (often accompanied by musical instruments like dholak, sitar, sarangi etc.) are also sung.
Rajasthan is known for its traditional, colorful art. The block prints, tie and dye prints, Bagaru prints, Sanganer prints, and Zari embroidery are major export products from Rajasthan. Handicraft items like wooden furniture and crafts, carpets, and blue pottery are commonly found here. Rajasthan is a shoppers' paradise, with beautiful goods at low prices. Reflecting the colorfulculture, Rajasthani clothes have a lot of mirror-work and embroidery. A Rajasthani traditional dress for females comprises an ankle-length skirt and a short top, also known as a lehenga or a chaniya choli. A piece of cloth is used to cover the head, both for protection from heat and maintenance of modesty. Rajasthani dresses are usually designed in bright colours like blue, yellow and orange.


A decorated Indian elephant during a fair in Jaipur.
The main religious festivals are Deepawali, Holi, Gangaur, Teej, Gogaji, Shri Devnarayan Jayanti, Makar Sankranti and Janmashtami, as the main religion is Hinduism. Rajasthan's desert festival is held once a year during winter. Dressed in brilliantly hued costumes, the people of the desert dance and sing ballads. There are fairs with snake charmers, puppeteers, acrobats and folk performers. Camels play a role in this festival.
Spirit possession has been documented in modern Rajasthan. Some of the spirits possessing Rajasthanis are seen as good and beneficial, while others are seen as malevolent. The good spirits include murdered royalty, the underworld god Bhaironji, and Muslim saints. Bad spirits include perpetual debtors who die in debt, stillborn infants, deceased widows, and foreign tourists. The possessed individual is referred to as a ghorala ("mount"). Possession, even if it is by a benign spirit, is regarded as undesirable, as it entails loss of self-control and violent emotional outbursts.28
Education
Siri - Qutubuddin Aibaq's 'Slave Dynasty' was followed by the line of Khilji (or Khalji) rulers. The most prominent among the six rulers was Allauddin who extended the kingdom to the south of Narmada and also established the city of 'Siri'. Among some of the remaining ruins, is part of the Siri Fort in the greater Hauz Khas area. The madrasa at Hauz Khas was constructed during Allauddin's reign and bears the stamp of West Asian architecture. Hauz Khas is more often visited today for the chic botiques and restaurants.
Tughlakabad - Exactly as it happens during the fall of a lineage of kings, after the Khilji's there was administrative chaos for sometime as the last Khilji ruler was slain by Nasruddin Mohammed. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (a Turk governor) invaded Delhi in the 1320s, started the Tughlaq dynasty, and founded the city of Tughlakabad, the ruins of which still remain. His descendant Muhammad Bin Tughlaq raised the fort walls, created another city called Jahapanah (which enclosed the area between Siri and Qila Rai Pithora). Tughlakabad continued, however, to be the main capital city. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq is also known as the mad king for wanting to move the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (now near Aurangabad in Maharashtra) and making the entire population travel, only to return in a few years because of water shortage in the new town.

Fort Dansborg at Tharangambadi built by the Danes.

Fort Dansborg at Tharangambadi built by the Danes.
Main article: Madras Presidency
Around 1609, the Dutch established a settlement in Pulicat, while the Danes had their establishment in Tharangambadi also known as Tranquebar. In 1639, the British, under the East India Company, established a settlement further south of Pulicat, in present day Chennai. In the late 18th century, the British fought and reduced the French dominions in India to Puducherry. Nizams of Hyderabad and the Nawabs of the Carnatic bestowed tax revenue collection rights on the East India Company for defeating the Kingdom of Mysore. After winning the Polygar wars, the East India Company consolidated most of southern India into the Madras Presidency coterminous with the dominions of Nizam of Hyderabad. Pudukkottai remained as a princely state.
Democratic India (1947 - present)


Srivilliputhur Andal Temple Tower, official symbol of the Government of Tamil Nadu
When India became independent in 1947, Madras Presidency became Madras State, comprising present day Tamil Nadu, coastal Andhra Pradesh up to Ganjam district in Orissa, South Canara district Karnataka, and parts of Kerala. The state was subsequently split up along linguistic lines. In 1969, Madras State was renamed Tamil Nadu, meaning "Tamil country". 50
Geography

Tamil Nadu covers an area of 130,058 km2 (50,216 sq mi), and is the eleventh largest state in India. The bordering states are Kerala to the west, Karnataka to the north west and Andhra Pradesh to the north. To the east is the Bay of Bengal and the union territory of Puducherry. The southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula is located in Tamil Nadu. At this point is the town of Kanyakumari which is the meeting point of the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean. The south boundary of India is Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu.


Topographic map of Tamil Nadu
The western, southern and the north western parts are hilly and rich in vegetation. The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats and they both meet at the Nilgiri hills. The Western Ghats dominate the entire western border with Kerala, effectively blocking much of the rain bearing clouds of the south west monsoon from entering the state. The eastern parts are fertile coastal plains and the northern parts are a mix of hills and plains. The central and the south central regions are arid plains and receive less rainfall than the other regions.
Tamil Nadu has a coastline of about 910 km (570 mi) which is the country’s third longest coastline. Tamil Nadu's coastline bore the brunt of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami when it hit India, which caused 7,793 direct deaths in the state. Tamil Nadu falls mostly in a region of low seismic hazard with the exception of the western border areas that lie in a low to moderate hazard zone; as per the 2002 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) map, Tamil Nadu falls in Zones II & III. Historically, parts of this region have experienced seismic activity in the M5.0 range. 51
Flora and fauna

Main articles: Wildlife of Tamil Nadu and List of birds of Tamil Nadu
There are about 2000 species of wildlife that are native to Tamil Nadu. Protected areas provide safe habitat for large mammals including elephants, tigers, leopards, wild dogs, sloth bears, gaurs, lion-tailed macaques, Nilgiri Langurs, Nilgiri Tahrs, Grizzled Giant Squirrels and Sambar deer, resident and migratory birds such as cormorants, darters, herons, egrets, Open-billed storks, Spoonbills and White Ibises, Little Grebes, Indian Moorhen, Black-winged Stilts, a few migratory Ducks and occasionally Grey pelicans, marine species such as the Dugongs, turtles, dolphins and Balanoglossus and a wide variety of fish and insects.


The endangered Lion-tailed Macaque is found in a few forests in southern India.
Indian Angiosperm diversity comprises 17,672 species with Tamil Nadu leading all states in the country, with 5640 species accounting for 1/3 of the total flora of India. This includes 1559 species of medicinal plants, 533 endemic species, 260 species of wild relatives of cultivated plants and 230 red-listed species. The Gymnosperm diversity of the country is 64 species of which Tamil Nadu has four indigenous species and about 60 introduced species. The Pteridophytes diversity of India includes 1022 species of which Tamil Nadu has about 184 species. Vast numbers of bryophytes, lichen, fungi, algae and bacteria are among the wild plant diversity of Tamil Nadu.
Common plant species include the state tree: Palmyra Palm, Eucalyptus, Rubber, Cinchona, Clumping Bamboos (Bambusa Arundinacea), Common teak, Anogeissus latifolia, Indian Laurel, Grewia, and blooming trees like Indian labumusum, Ardisia, and Solanaceae. Rare and unique plant life includes Combretum ovalifolium, Ebony (Diospyros nilagrica), Habenaria rariflora (Orchid), Alsophila, Impatiens elegans, Ranunculus reniformis, and Royal fern. 52
National and State Parks

Main article: Protected areas of Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu has a wide range of Biomes extending east from the South Western Ghats montane rain forests in the Western Ghats through the South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests and Deccan thorn scrub forests to tropical dry broadleaf forests and then to the beaches, estuaries, salt marshes, mangroves, and coral reefs of the Bay of Bengal.


Kodayar Shola Forests in the Western Ghats of Kanyakumari District
The state has a range of flora and fauna with many species and habitats. To protect this diversity of wildlife there are Protected areas of Tamil Nadu as well as biospheres which protect larger areas of natural habitat often include one or more National Parks. The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve established in 1986 is a marine ecosystem with seaweed and sea grass communities, coral reefs, salt marshes and mangrove forests. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve located in the Western Ghats and Nilgiri Hills comprises part of adjoining states of Kerala and Karnataka. The Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve is in the south west of the state bordering Kerala in the Western Ghats. Tamil Nadu is home to five declared National parks located in Anamalai, Mudumalai, Mukurithi, Gulf of Mannar and Guindy located in the center of Chennai city. Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve, Mukurthi National Park and Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve are the tiger reserves in the state. Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve has the largest elephant population in India. Besides these bio reserves, there are many state and central run wild life sanctuaries for tiger, elephant and birds.
Climate



A semi-arid wasteland near Tirunelveli. Monsoon clouds pour torrents of rain on windward-facing Kerala, but are prevented from reaching Tirunelveli by the Agasthyamalai Range of the Western Ghats (background).
Tamil Nadu is mostly dependent on monsoon rains, and thereby is prone to droughts when the monsoons fail. The climate of the state ranges from dry sub-humid to semi-arid. The state has three distinct periods of rainfall:
advancing monsoon period, south west monsoon from June to September, with strong southwest winds;
North east monsoon from October to December, with dominant north east winds;
dry season from January to May.
The annual rainfall of the state is about 945 mm (37.2 in) of which 48 per cent is through the north east monsoon, and 32 per cent through the south west monsoon. Since the state is entirely dependent on rains for recharging its water resources, monsoon failures lead to acute water scarcity and severe drought. 53
Tamil Nadu is classified into seven agro-climatic zones: north east, north west, west, southern, high rainfall, high altitude hilly, and Cauvery Delta (the most fertile agricultural zone). The table below shows the maximum and minimum temperatures that the state experiences in the plains and hills.
Governance and administration

State symbols of Tamil Nadu
Song Neerarum Kadaludutha.jpgInvocation to Goddess Tamil
Dance Bharatanatyam male.jpgBharathanattiyam
Animal Niltahr.jpgNilgiri Tahr
Bird Emerald dove444.jpgEmerald Dove
Flower Gloriosa Superba.jpgGloriosa Lily
Tree Palm Tamil Nadu.jpgPalm Tree
Sport Kabaddi.jpgSadugudu
Main articles: Government of Tamil Nadu and Tamil Nadu Legislature
The Governor is the constitutional head of the state while the Chief Minister is the head of the government and the head of the council of ministers. The Chief Justice of the Madras High Court is the head of the judiciary. The present Governor, Chief Minister and the Chief Justice are Konijeti Rosaiah, J. Jayalalitha and Rajesh Kumar Agarwal 54  respectively. Administratively the state is divided into 32 districts. It has 10 city corporations, 125 municipalities, 529 town panchayats and 12,524 village panchayats. 55  56  Chennai (formerly known as Madras) is the state capital. It is the fourth largest city in India and is also one of the eight Metropolitan cities of India. The state comprises 39 Lok Sabha constituencies and 234 Legislative Assembly constituencies.
Tamil Nadu had a bicameral legislature until 1986, when it was replaced with a unicameral legislature, like most other states in India. The term length of the government is five years, as is elsewhere in India. The present government run by the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK)-led alliance came to power in 2011 and consists of a council of 33 ministers, headed by the Chief Minister J. Jayalalitha. The Tamil Nadu legislative assembly is housed at the Fort St. George in Chennai. The state had come under the President's rule rule on four occasions – first from 1976 to 1977, next for a short period in 1980, then from 1988 to 1989 and the latest in 1991.


The Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam in Tiruchirappalli district is often listed as the largest functioning Hindu temple in the world.
The local administration is divided into revenue administration and developmental administration. Revenue administrative units are classified based on the district. Each of the 32 districts in Tamil Nadu is divided into divisions, which are further divided to Taluks. 57  Each of these Taluks have a list of revenue villages under them. Tahsildar is the head of these Taluks. Developmental administration, in contrast, is carried out by Panchayat Unions (called blocks) in rural areas. These panchayat unions have a set of panchayat villages under them. In urban areas, the governance is done by municipal corporations, municipalities or town panchayats based on the size of the town. 57  Tamil Nadu has 10 municipal corporations: Chennai, Coimbatore, Madurai, Tiruchirappalli, Salem, Tirunelveli, Tirupur, Erode, Thoothukudi and Vellore. Nagercoil and Thanjavur are soon going to be upgraded as the next two Municipal corporations.
Tamil Nadu has been a pioneering state of E-Governance initiatives in India. A large part of the government records like land ownership records are digitised and all major offices of the state government like Urban Local Bodies — all the corporations and municipal office activities – revenue collection, land registration offices, and transport offices have been computerised. Tamil Nadu is one of the states where law and order has been maintained largely successfully. 58  The Tamil Nadu Police Force is over 140 years old. It is the fifth largest state police force in India and has the largest strength of women police personnel in the country. 59  As of 2003, the state had a total police population ratio of 1:668, higher than the national average of 1:717. The current Director General of Police (law and order) of Tamil Nadu is K. Ramanujan. 60
Districts

Main article: Districts of Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu is subdivided into 32 districts, which are listed below. The numbers in the first column correspond to those on the map:


Districts of Tamil Nadu
District Headquarters Area Population
(2011) Population
density
1 Ariyalur Ariyalur 1,944 km³ 752,481 387 /km²
2 Chennai Chennai 174 km² 4,681,087 26,903 /km²
3 Coimbatore Coimbatore 4,642 km² 3,172,578 648 /km²
4 Cuddalore Cuddalore 3,705 km² 2,600,880 702 /km²
5 Dharmapuri Dharmapuri 4,527 km² 1,502,900 332 /km²
6 Dindigul Dindigul 6,054 km² 2,161,367 357 /km²
7 Erode Erode 5,692 km² 2,259,608 397 /km²
8 Kanchipuram Kanchipuram 4,305 km² 2,690,897 666 /km²
9 Kanyakumari Nagercoil 1,685 km² 1,863,174 1,106 /km²
10 Karur Karur 2,902 km² 1,076,588 371 /km²
11 Krishnagiri Krishnagiri 5,091 km² 1,883,731 370 /km²
12 Madurai Madurai 3,695 km² 2,441,038 663 /km²
13 Nagapattinam Nagapattinam 2,416 km² 1,614,069 668 /km²
14 Namakkal Namakkal 3,402 km² 1,721,179 506 /km²
15 Nilgiris Udagamandalam 2,552 km² 735,071 288 /km²
16 Perambalur Perambalur 1,748 km² 564,511 323 /km²
17 Pudukkottai Pudukkottai 4,652 km² 1,618,725 348 /km²
18 Ramanathapuram Ramanathapuram 4,180 km² 1,337,560 320 /km²
19 Salem Salem 5,249 km² 3,480,008 663 /km²
20 Sivaganga Sivaganga 4,140 km² 1,341,250 324 /km²
21 Thanjavur Thanjavur 3,477 km² 2,302,781 661 /km²
22 Theni Theni 2,872 km² 1,143,684 397 /km²
23 Thoothukudi Thoothukudi 4,599 km² 1,738,376 378 /km²
24 Tiruchirappalli Tiruchirappalli 4,508 km² 2,713,858 602 /km²
25 Tirunelveli Tirunelveli 6,709 km² 3,072,880 458 /km²
26 Tirupur Tirupur 5,192 km² 2,471,222 476 /km²
27 Tiruvallur Tiruvallur 3,552 km² 3,725,697 1,049 /km²
28 Tiruvannamalai Tiruvannamalai 6,188 km² 4,121,965 667 /km²
29 Tiruvarur Tiruvarur 2,379 km² 1,268,094 533 /km²
30 Vellore Vellore 6,081 km² 4,028,106 671 /km²
31 Viluppuram Viluppuram 7,185 km² 3,463,284 482 /km²
32 Virudhunagar Virudhunagar 4,280 km² 1,943,309 454 /km²
Politics

Political
Alliance Assembly
(2011) Lok Sabha
(2009)
AIADMK+ 203 12
DMK+ 31 27
Independent/Other 0 0
Source: Election Commission of India. 61  62
Main articles: Elections in Tamil Nadu, Politics of Tamil Nadu, and Dravidian parties
Pre-Independent politicians and freedom fighters
Prior to Indian independence Tamil Nadu was under British colonial rule as part of the Madras Presidency. The main party in Tamil Nadu at that time was the Indian National Congress (INC). Regional parties have dominated state politics since 1916. One of the earliest regional parties, the South Indian Welfare Association, a forerunner to Dravidian parties in Tamil Nadu, was started in 1916. The party was called after its English organ, Justice Party, by it opponents. Later, South Indian Liberal Federation was adopted as its official name. The reason for victory of the Justice Party in elections was the non-participation of the INC, demanding complete independence of India.
The Justice Party which was under E.V.Ramaswamy was renamed Dravidar Kazhagam (DK for short) in 1944. DK was a non-political party which demanded the establishment of an independent state called Dravida Nadu. However, due to the differences between its two leaders EVR and C.N. Annadurai, the party was split. Annadurai left the party to form the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK). The DMK decided to enter politics in 1956. In the 19th century, western scholars discovered that the Dravidian languages dominating southern India formed a different linguistic group than the Indo-Aryan languages predominant in northern India. They also classified Indians into distinct Aryan and Dravidian races. It was proposed that the generally darker-skinned Dravidians constituted a distinct race. This concept has affected thinking in India about racial and regional differences and had an impact on aspects of Tamil nationalism, which has appropriated the claim that Dravidians are the earliest inhabitants of India, and the Aryan population were oppressive interlopers from whom Dravidians should liberate themselves.


Fort St. Secretariat of the government of Tamil Nadu.
Post-Independent India
Re-organisation of Indian states according to linguistic and ethnic basis has moderated Tamil nationalism, especially the demand for separation from the Indian Union. The Anti-Hindi agitations in mid-1960s made the DMK more popular and a more powerful political force in the state. The DMK routed the INC in the 1967 elections and took control of the state government, ending INC's stronghold in Tamil Nadu. C.N. Annadurai became the DMK's first Chief Minister. Muthuvel Karunanidhi took over as Chief Minister and party leader after Annadurai's death in 1969. Karunanidhi's leadership was soon challenged by M.G. Ramachandran, popularly known as MGR. In 1972, he split from DMK and formed the Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (ADMK) and later renamed the party as All India Anna Dravid Munnetra Kazhagam. He was the Chief Minister of the state from 1977 until his death in 1987. After the death of MGR, AIADMK was defeated in 1989 assembly polls because of the split of the party into two factions headed by Janaki (wife of MGR) and Jayalalithaa. Later on J. Jayalalithaa took control of the party. She was elected as the General Secretary of the unified AIADMK. There have been several splits in both the DMK and the AIADMK, but since 1967 one of those two parties has held power in the state.
Demographics 

Jainism, in Tamilnadu, India


Work of Art from 15th century CE Manuscript of Suryaprajñapti
The following Upanga agamas describe the Jain cosmology and geography in a great detail:19
Suryaprajñapti – Treatise on Sun
Jambudvipaprajñapti - Treatise on the island of Roseapple tree; it contains a description of Jambudvi and life biographies of ??abha and King Bharata
Candraprajñapti - Treatise on moon
Additionally, the following texts describe the Jain cosmology and related topics in detail:
Trilokasara – Essence of the three worlds (heavens, middle level, hells)
Trilokaprajñapti – Treatise on the three worlds
Trilokadipika – Illumination of the three worlds
Tattvarthasutra – Description on nature of realities
K?etrasamasa – Summary of Jain geography
Bruhatsamgrahni – Treatise on Jain cosmology and geography
Urdhva Loka, the upper world


Shape of Universe as per Jain cosmology in form of a cosmic man. Picture taken from 15-17th CE Jain art
Upper World (Udharva loka) is divided into different abodes and are the realms of the heavenly beings (demi-gods) who are non-liberated souls.
Upper World is divided into sixteen Devalokas, nine Graiveyaka, nine Anudish and five Anuttar abodes. Sixteen Devaloka abodes are Saudharma, Aishana, Sanatkumara, Mahendra, Brahma, Brahmottara, Lantava, Kapishta, Shukra, Mahashukra, Shatara, Sahasrara, Anata, Pranata, Arana and Achyuta. Nine Graiveyak abodes are Sudarshan, Amogh, Suprabuddha, Yashodhar, Subhadra, Suvishal, Sumanas, Saumanas and Pritikar. Nine Anudish are Aditya, Archi, Archimalini, Vair, Vairochan, Saum, Saumrup, Ark and Sphatik. Five Anuttar are Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta, Aparajita and Sarvarthasiddhi.
The sixteen heavens in Devalokas are also called Kalpas and the rest are called Kalpatit. Those living in Kalpatit are called Ahamindra and are equal in grandeur. There is increase with regard to the lifetime, influence of power, happiness, lumination of body, purity in thought-colouration, capacity of the senses and range of clairvoyance in the Heavenly beings residing in the higher abodes. But there is decrease with regard to motion, stature, attachment and pride. The higher groups, dwelling in 9 Greveyak and 5 Anutar Viman. They are independent and dwelling in their own vehicles. The anuttara souls attain liberation within one or two lifetimes. The lower groups, organized like earthly kingdoms - rulers (Indra), counselors, guards, queens, followers, armies etc.
Above the Anutar vimans, at the apex of the universe, is the Siddhasila, the realms of the liberated souls also known as the Siddhas, the perfected omniscient and blissful beings, who are venerated by the Jains.20
Madhya Loka, the middle world

Image depicting map of Jambudvipa as per Jain Cosmology
Early 19th century painting depicting map of 2 & 1/2 continents
Madhya Loka, at the centre of the universe consists of 900 yojans above and 900 yojans below earth surface. It is inhabited by:20
Jyotishka devas (luminous gods) - 790 to 900 yojans above earth
Human, Tiryanch (Animals, birds, plants) on the surface
Vyantar devas (Intermediary gods)- 100 yojan below the ground level
Madhyaloka consists of many continent-islands surrounded by oceans, first eight whose names are :-
Continent/ Island Ocean
Jambudvipa Lavanoda (Salt - ocean)
Ghatki Khand Kaloda (Black sea)
Puskarvardvipa Puskaroda (Lotus Ocean)
Varunvardvipa Varunoda (Varun Ocean)
Kshirvardvipa Kshiroda (Ocean of milk)
Ghrutvardvipa Ghrutoda (Butter milk ocean)
Ikshuvardvipa Iksuvaroda (Sugar Ocean)
Nandishwardvipa Nandishwaroda
Mount Meru is at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambudvipa, in form of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojans.20 There are two sets of sun, moon and stars revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind the Mount Meru.212223
Tamil Nadu (/tæmɪl nɑːduː/ tam-il-nah-doo; About this sound Tamil pronunciation (help·info); Tamil: தமிழ்நாடு; literally "Tamil Country") is one of the 28 states of India. Its capital is Chennai (formerly known as Madras), the largest city. Tamil Nadu is a land most known for its monumental ancient Hindu temples. 5  Tamil Nadu 6  lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Puducherry, and the states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. It is bound by the Eastern Ghats in the north, the Nilgiri, the Anamalai Hills, and Kerala on the west, by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Gulf of Mannar, the Palk Strait in the south east, and by the Indian Ocean in the south.
Tamil Nadu is the eleventh largest state in India by area and the seventh most populous state. It is the second largest state economy in India as of 2012. 7  The state ranked 6th among states in India according to the Human Development Index as of 2011. 3   8  The state has the highest number (10.56 per cent) of business enterprises and stands second in total employment (9.97 per cent) in India, 9  compared to the population share of about 6 per cent.
Prehistory
Archaeological evidence points to this area being one of the longest continuous habitations in India. 23  In Adichanallur, 24 km (15 mi) from Tirunelveli, archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) unearthed 169 clay urns containing human skulls, skeletons and bones, husks and grains of rice, charred rice and celts of the Neolithic period, 3,800 years ago. 24  The ASI archaeologists have proposed that the script used at that site is "very rudimentary" Tamil Brahmi. 25  Adichanallur has been announced as an archaeological site for further excavation and studies. 26  About 60 per cent of the total epigraphical inscriptions found by the ASI in India are from Tamil Nadu, and most of these are in the Tamil language. 27 . Virumandi Andithevar, of the Piramalai Kallar community from the Tamil Nadu region of southern India, was identified by the Genographic Project as one of the direct descendants of the first modern human settlers in India. His Y-DNA belongs to Haplogroup C and he carries the M130 marker which defines the first migrants to South East Asia and Australia from the African coast 60,000 years ago; more than half of Australian Aborigines also carry the M130 gene. 28
Indus valley script between 2000 B.C. and 1500 B.C
The Neolithic people of Tamil Nadu shared the same language family of the Harappan group. Neolithic people of the Tamil country spoke a Dravidian language.The discovery of a Neolithic stone celt, a hand-held axe, with the Indus script on it at Sembian-Kandiyur in Tamil Nadu is, according to Iravatham Mahadevan, "Stone axe with Indus Valley script found near Mayiladuthurai,Tamil Nadu was a major discovery because for the first time a text in the Indus script has been found in the State on a datable artefact, which is a polished neolithic celt. He estimated the date of the artefact with the script to be around 1500 B.C. 29
Early history (Sangam Period 300 BCE - 300 CE)


Roman pottery excavated in Arikamedu (1st century CE, Guimet Museum).
Main article: Sangam period
The early history of the people and rulers of Tamil Nadu is a topic in Tamil sources known as Sangam literature. Numismatic, archaeological and literary sources corroborate that the Sangam period lasted for about six centuries, from 300 BCE to 300 CE. Three dynasties, namely the Chera, Chola and Pandya, ruled the area of present-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The Chera ruled the whole of present day Kerala and parts of western Tamil Nadu comprising Coimbatore, Karur, Salem and Erode districts from the capital of Vanchi Muthur (thought to be modern day Karur). The Chola dynasty ruled the northern and central parts of Tamil Nadu from their capital, Uraiyur; and the Pandya dynasty ruled southern Tamil Nadu, from capitals at Korkai and Madurai. All three dynasties had extensive trade relationships with Rome, Greece, Egypt, Ceylon, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Trade flourished in commodities such as spices, ivory, pearls, beads and gems. Chera traded extensively from Muziris on the west coast, Chola from Arikamedu and Puhar and Pandya through Korkai port. A Greco-Roman trade and travel document, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. 60–100 CE) gives a description of the Tamil country and its ports. Between the third and the seventh centuries CE, the three Tamil kingdoms were overwhelmed by the Kalabhras; this is sometimes referred to as the "Dark Age" in Tamil history, and little is known of it. The Kalabhras were expelled by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the sixth century.
Medieval Period (600–1300)


Kallanai or Grand Anicut, is an ancient dam built on the Kaveri River in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India. It was built by the Chola king and Karikala Chola around the 2nd Century AD 30  31  and is considered one of the oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world, which is still in use. It still stands as a symbol of Dravidian Engineering. 32  33
During the Kalabhras' rule Buddhism flourished in the land of the Tamils. The didactic work Naaladiyar was composed during their reign. It consists of moral sayings in the venpa meter, 400 in number in 40 chapters, each by one Buddhist ascetic, according to tradition. Following the tradition of Tamil Buddhism, Naaladiyar emphasises virtues such as control of the senses, Dhamma (Lord Buddha's teaching), renunciation, and other desirable social qualities. Pali was the court language of the Kalabhras who were also called Kalapara or Kalaparaya according to the Koramangalam inscription.


Shore Temple built by the Pallavas at Mamallapuram during the eighth century, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
During the fourth to eighth centuries C.E., Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under Mahendravarman I and his son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I. 34  The Pallavas ruled a parts of South India with Kanchipuram as their capital. Dravidian architecture reached its peak during Pallava rule. Narasimhavarman II built the Shore Temple which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. They came into conflict with the Kannada Chalukyas of Badami. During this period, The great Badami Chalukya King Pulakesi II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom and defeated the Pallavas in several battles. 35  Pallava Narasimhavarman, however, reversed this victory in 642 by attacking and occupying Badami temporarily. 36  However, a later Chalukya King Vikramaditya II took revenge by repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam and his subsequent victories over Pallava Parameswarvarman I and the temporary occupation of Kanchipuram. 37


The Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai is one of the grand Hindu temples in India.
The Pallava dynasty was overthrown in the 9th century by the imperial Rashtrakutas who ruled from Gulbarga. King Krishna III, the last great Rashtrakuta king consolidated the empire so that it stretched from the Narmada River to Kaveri River and included the northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon. 38  Much later, the Pallavas were replaced by the Cholas as the dominant kingdom in the 10th century C.E. and they in turn were replaced by Pandyas in the 13th century C.E. The Pandyan capital Madurai was in the deep south away from the coast. They had extensive trade links with the south east Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors, as well as contacts, even formal diplomatic contacts, reaching as far as the Roman Empire. During the 13th century C.E. Marco Polo mentioned the Pandyas as the richest empire in existence. Temples such as the Meenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple at Tirunelveli are the best examples of Pandyan temple architecture. 39  The Pandyas excelled in both trade and literature. They controlled the pearl fisheries along the south coast of India coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls in the known ancient world.
Chola Empire
Main article: Chola dynasty
The Cholas, who were very active during the Sangam age, were entirely absent during the first few centuries. 40  The period started with the rivalry between the Pandyas and the Pallavas, which in turn caused the revival of the Cholas.


A sculpture at Airavatesvara Temple, Darasuram, built by Tamil Chola Kings. The Great Living Chola Temples are UNESCO World Heritage sites.
During the ninth century, the Chola dynasty was once again revived by Vijayalaya Chola, who established Thanjavur as Chola's new capital by conquering central Tamil Nadu from the local clans of Mutharayar and the Pandya king Varagunavarman II. Aditya I and his son Parantaka I expanded the kingdom to the northern parts of Tamil Nadu by defeating the last Pallava king, Aparajitavarman.
Parantaka Chola II expanded the Chola empire into what is now interior Andhra Pradesh and coastal Karnataka, while under the great Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola, the Cholas rose to a notable power in south east Asia. Now the Chola Empire stretched as far as Bengal and Sir Lanka. At its peak, the empire spanned almost 3,600,000 km2 (1,400,000 sq mi). Rajaraja Chola conquered all of peninsular south India and parts of Sri Lanka. Rajendra Chola's navy went even further, occupying coasts from Burma (now Myanmar) to Vietnam, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Sumatra, Java, Malaya, Philippines 41  in South East Asia and Pegu islands. He defeated Mahipala, the king of Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital and named it Gangaikonda Cholapuram.


The Chola Empire at its greatest extent, during the reign of Rajendra Chola I in 1030 CE
The Cholas were prolific temple builders right from the times of the first medieval king Vijayalaya Chola. These are the earliest specimen of Dravidian temples under the Cholas. His son Aditya I built several temples around the Kanchi and Kumbakonam regions. The Cholas went on to becoming a great power and built some of the most imposing religious structures in their lifetime and they also renovated temples and buildings of the Pallavas, acknowledging their common socio-religious and cultural heritage. The celebrated Nataraja temple at Chidambaram and the Sri Ranganathaswami Temple at Srirangam held special significance for the Cholas which have been mentioned in their inscriptions as their tutelary deities.


Natarajan, Siva as celestial dancer, an example of Chola art.
Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola, who built temples such as the Brihadeshvara Temple of Thanjavur and Brihadeshvara Temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the Airavatesvara Temple of Darasuram and the Sarabeswara (Shiva) Temple, also called the Kampahareswarar Temple at Thirubhuvanam, the last two temples being located near Kumbakonam. The first three of the above four temples are titled Great Living Chola Temples among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes all over the world. Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of southern India the fine figures of Siva in various forms, Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Siva saints are the examples of Chola bronze. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer.


Brihadeeswara Temple built by Raja Raja Chola I in 1010 CE.
During the rule of the great Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI, in the late eleventh to early twelfth century, the Western Chalukyas convincingly defeated the Cholas on several occasions, weakening their empire. 42  43  With the decline of the Chola dynasty between 1116 and 1185 C.E., the Hoysalas of Kannada country rose to prominence, under King Vishnuvardhana and his grandson, the celebrated Veera Ballala II. 44  45  46  The Hoysalas extended their foothold in Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital that give them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan. 47  48  Hoysala Vira Narasimha II's son Vira Someshwara earned the honorific "uncle" (Mamadi) from the Pandyas and Cholas. The Hoysala influence spread over Pandya kingdom from who they gained tribute. 49  This revival was short-lived as the Pandya capital of Madurai itself was sacked by Alauddin Khilji's troops under General Malik Kafur in 1316. The Muslim invasion led to the establishment of the short-lived Madurai Sultanate.
Summary of Regions in the Sangam and Medieval Periods citation needed
Chera Nadu or Kongu Nadu: The western region comprising roughly the modern districts of Coimbatore, Nilgiris, Erode, Salem, Tiruppur, Namakkal,Karur and Dharmapuri.
Chola Nadu: The eastern region comprising roughly the modern districts of Tiruchirappalli, Thanjavur, Thiruvarur, Nagapattinam, Ariyalur, Perambalur and Pudukottai with UT of Karaikal.
Pandya Nadu: The southern districts of Madurai, Virudhunagar, Dindigul, Theni, Sivaganga, Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi.
Tondai Nadu or Pallava Nadu: The modern districts of Chitoor, Vellore, Thiruvannamalai, Villupuram,Kanchipuram, Chengulput, Thiruvallur, Cuddalore, Krishnagiri, part of Dharmapuri and Chennai with UT of Puducherry
Nadu Nadu: Parts of Villupuram, Cuddalore and Salem districts.
Nanjil Nadu: Nagercoil (Kanyakumari district)
Sangam texts refer to more "Koduntamil" mandalams which are not exactly political or socio - cultural units but linguistic agglomerations.
Vijayanagar and Nayak period (1336–1646)
Main article: Vijayanagara Empire
The Muslim invasions of southern India triggered the establishment of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire with Vijayanagara in modern Karnataka as its capital. The Vijayanagara empire eventually conquered the entire Tamil country by c. 1370 C.E. and ruled for almost two centuries until its defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by a confederacy of Deccan sultanates.

The region has been the home of the Tamil people since at least 1500 BCE. 10  Its official language Tamil has been in use in inscriptions and literature for over 3,800 years. Hindus believe that Lord Shiva himself taught Rishi Agastya this language. 11  12  13  14  15  16  17  18  Sage Rishi Agastya is considered as the Father of Tamil literature and compiled the first Tamil grammar called Agathiyam, but the scripts of Agathiyam does not exist 19 . It is believed that he has lived in the 6th or 7th century B.C and specialized in language, alchemy, medicine and spirituality (yogam and gnanam). There are 96 books in the name of Agathiyar. 20  Tamil Nadu is home to many natural resources, Hindu temples of Dravidian architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites