Work of Art from 15th century CE Manuscript of Suryaprajñapti
The following Upanga agamas describe the Jain cosmology and geography in a great detail:19
Suryaprajñapti – Treatise on Sun
Jambudvipaprajñapti - Treatise on the island of Roseapple tree; it contains a description of Jambudvi and life biographies of ??abha and King Bharata
Candraprajñapti - Treatise on moon
Additionally, the following texts describe the Jain cosmology and related topics in detail:
Trilokasara – Essence of the three worlds (heavens, middle level, hells)
Trilokaprajñapti – Treatise on the three worlds
Trilokadipika – Illumination of the three worlds
Tattvarthasutra – Description on nature of realities
K?etrasamasa – Summary of Jain geography
Bruhatsamgrahni – Treatise on Jain cosmology and geography
Urdhva Loka, the upper world
Shape of Universe as per Jain cosmology in form of a cosmic man. Picture taken from 15-17th CE Jain art
Upper World (Udharva loka) is divided into different abodes and are the realms of the heavenly beings (demi-gods) who are non-liberated souls.
Upper World is divided into sixteen Devalokas, nine Graiveyaka, nine Anudish and five Anuttar abodes. Sixteen Devaloka abodes are Saudharma, Aishana, Sanatkumara, Mahendra, Brahma, Brahmottara, Lantava, Kapishta, Shukra, Mahashukra, Shatara, Sahasrara, Anata, Pranata, Arana and Achyuta. Nine Graiveyak abodes are Sudarshan, Amogh, Suprabuddha, Yashodhar, Subhadra, Suvishal, Sumanas, Saumanas and Pritikar. Nine Anudish are Aditya, Archi, Archimalini, Vair, Vairochan, Saum, Saumrup, Ark and Sphatik. Five Anuttar are Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta, Aparajita and Sarvarthasiddhi.
The sixteen heavens in Devalokas are also called Kalpas and the rest are called Kalpatit. Those living in Kalpatit are called Ahamindra and are equal in grandeur. There is increase with regard to the lifetime, influence of power, happiness, lumination of body, purity in thought-colouration, capacity of the senses and range of clairvoyance in the Heavenly beings residing in the higher abodes. But there is decrease with regard to motion, stature, attachment and pride. The higher groups, dwelling in 9 Greveyak and 5 Anutar Viman. They are independent and dwelling in their own vehicles. The anuttara souls attain liberation within one or two lifetimes. The lower groups, organized like earthly kingdoms - rulers (Indra), counselors, guards, queens, followers, armies etc.
Above the Anutar vimans, at the apex of the universe, is the Siddhasila, the realms of the liberated souls also known as the Siddhas, the perfected omniscient and blissful beings, who are venerated by the Jains.20
Madhya Loka, the middle world
Image depicting map of Jambudvipa as per Jain Cosmology
Early 19th century painting depicting map of 2 & 1/2 continents
Madhya Loka, at the centre of the universe consists of 900 yojans above and 900 yojans below earth surface. It is inhabited by:20
Jyotishka devas (luminous gods) - 790 to 900 yojans above earth
Human, Tiryanch (Animals, birds, plants) on the surface
Vyantar devas (Intermediary gods)- 100 yojan below the ground level
Madhyaloka consists of many continent-islands surrounded by oceans, first eight whose names are :-
Continent/ Island Ocean
Jambudvipa Lavanoda (Salt - ocean)
Ghatki Khand Kaloda (Black sea)
Puskarvardvipa Puskaroda (Lotus Ocean)
Varunvardvipa Varunoda (Varun Ocean)
Kshirvardvipa Kshiroda (Ocean of milk)
Ghrutvardvipa Ghrutoda (Butter milk ocean)
Ikshuvardvipa Iksuvaroda (Sugar Ocean)
Nandishwardvipa Nandishwaroda
Mount Meru is at the centre of the world surrounded by Jambudvipa, in form of a circle forming a diameter of 100,000 yojans.20 There are two sets of sun, moon and stars revolving around Mount Meru; while one set works, the other set rests behind the Mount Meru.212223
Tamil Nadu (/tæmɪl nɑːduː/ tam-il-nah-doo; About this sound Tamil pronunciation (help·info); Tamil: தமிழ்நாடு; literally "Tamil Country") is one of the 28 states of India. Its capital is Chennai (formerly known as Madras), the largest city. Tamil Nadu is a land most known for its monumental ancient Hindu temples. 5 Tamil Nadu 6 lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Puducherry, and the states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. It is bound by the Eastern Ghats in the north, the Nilgiri, the Anamalai Hills, and Kerala on the west, by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Gulf of Mannar, the Palk Strait in the south east, and by the Indian Ocean in the south.
Tamil Nadu is the eleventh largest state in India by area and the seventh most populous state. It is the second largest state economy in India as of 2012. 7 The state ranked 6th among states in India according to the Human Development Index as of 2011. 3 8 The state has the highest number (10.56 per cent) of business enterprises and stands second in total employment (9.97 per cent) in India, 9 compared to the population share of about 6 per cent.
Prehistory
Archaeological evidence points to this area being one of the longest continuous habitations in India. 23 In Adichanallur, 24 km (15 mi) from Tirunelveli, archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) unearthed 169 clay urns containing human skulls, skeletons and bones, husks and grains of rice, charred rice and celts of the Neolithic period, 3,800 years ago. 24 The ASI archaeologists have proposed that the script used at that site is "very rudimentary" Tamil Brahmi. 25 Adichanallur has been announced as an archaeological site for further excavation and studies. 26 About 60 per cent of the total epigraphical inscriptions found by the ASI in India are from Tamil Nadu, and most of these are in the Tamil language. 27 . Virumandi Andithevar, of the Piramalai Kallar community from the Tamil Nadu region of southern India, was identified by the Genographic Project as one of the direct descendants of the first modern human settlers in India. His Y-DNA belongs to Haplogroup C and he carries the M130 marker which defines the first migrants to South East Asia and Australia from the African coast 60,000 years ago; more than half of Australian Aborigines also carry the M130 gene. 28
Indus valley script between 2000 B.C. and 1500 B.C
The Neolithic people of Tamil Nadu shared the same language family of the Harappan group. Neolithic people of the Tamil country spoke a Dravidian language.The discovery of a Neolithic stone celt, a hand-held axe, with the Indus script on it at Sembian-Kandiyur in Tamil Nadu is, according to Iravatham Mahadevan, "Stone axe with Indus Valley script found near Mayiladuthurai,Tamil Nadu was a major discovery because for the first time a text in the Indus script has been found in the State on a datable artefact, which is a polished neolithic celt. He estimated the date of the artefact with the script to be around 1500 B.C. 29
Early history (Sangam Period 300 BCE - 300 CE)
Roman pottery excavated in Arikamedu (1st century CE, Guimet Museum).
Main article: Sangam period
The early history of the people and rulers of Tamil Nadu is a topic in Tamil sources known as Sangam literature. Numismatic, archaeological and literary sources corroborate that the Sangam period lasted for about six centuries, from 300 BCE to 300 CE. Three dynasties, namely the Chera, Chola and Pandya, ruled the area of present-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The Chera ruled the whole of present day Kerala and parts of western Tamil Nadu comprising Coimbatore, Karur, Salem and Erode districts from the capital of Vanchi Muthur (thought to be modern day Karur). The Chola dynasty ruled the northern and central parts of Tamil Nadu from their capital, Uraiyur; and the Pandya dynasty ruled southern Tamil Nadu, from capitals at Korkai and Madurai. All three dynasties had extensive trade relationships with Rome, Greece, Egypt, Ceylon, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Trade flourished in commodities such as spices, ivory, pearls, beads and gems. Chera traded extensively from Muziris on the west coast, Chola from Arikamedu and Puhar and Pandya through Korkai port. A Greco-Roman trade and travel document, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (c. 60–100 CE) gives a description of the Tamil country and its ports. Between the third and the seventh centuries CE, the three Tamil kingdoms were overwhelmed by the Kalabhras; this is sometimes referred to as the "Dark Age" in Tamil history, and little is known of it. The Kalabhras were expelled by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the sixth century.
Medieval Period (600–1300)
Kallanai or Grand Anicut, is an ancient dam built on the Kaveri River in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India. It was built by the Chola king and Karikala Chola around the 2nd Century AD 30 31 and is considered one of the oldest water-diversion or water-regulator structures in the world, which is still in use. It still stands as a symbol of Dravidian Engineering. 32 33
During the Kalabhras' rule Buddhism flourished in the land of the Tamils. The didactic work Naaladiyar was composed during their reign. It consists of moral sayings in the venpa meter, 400 in number in 40 chapters, each by one Buddhist ascetic, according to tradition. Following the tradition of Tamil Buddhism, Naaladiyar emphasises virtues such as control of the senses, Dhamma (Lord Buddha's teaching), renunciation, and other desirable social qualities. Pali was the court language of the Kalabhras who were also called Kalapara or Kalaparaya according to the Koramangalam inscription.
Shore Temple built by the Pallavas at Mamallapuram during the eighth century, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
During the fourth to eighth centuries C.E., Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under Mahendravarman I and his son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I. 34 The Pallavas ruled a parts of South India with Kanchipuram as their capital. Dravidian architecture reached its peak during Pallava rule. Narasimhavarman II built the Shore Temple which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. They came into conflict with the Kannada Chalukyas of Badami. During this period, The great Badami Chalukya King Pulakesi II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom and defeated the Pallavas in several battles. 35 Pallava Narasimhavarman, however, reversed this victory in 642 by attacking and occupying Badami temporarily. 36 However, a later Chalukya King Vikramaditya II took revenge by repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam and his subsequent victories over Pallava Parameswarvarman I and the temporary occupation of Kanchipuram. 37
The Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai is one of the grand Hindu temples in India.
The Pallava dynasty was overthrown in the 9th century by the imperial Rashtrakutas who ruled from Gulbarga. King Krishna III, the last great Rashtrakuta king consolidated the empire so that it stretched from the Narmada River to Kaveri River and included the northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon. 38 Much later, the Pallavas were replaced by the Cholas as the dominant kingdom in the 10th century C.E. and they in turn were replaced by Pandyas in the 13th century C.E. The Pandyan capital Madurai was in the deep south away from the coast. They had extensive trade links with the south east Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors, as well as contacts, even formal diplomatic contacts, reaching as far as the Roman Empire. During the 13th century C.E. Marco Polo mentioned the Pandyas as the richest empire in existence. Temples such as the Meenakshi Amman Temple at Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple at Tirunelveli are the best examples of Pandyan temple architecture. 39 The Pandyas excelled in both trade and literature. They controlled the pearl fisheries along the south coast of India coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls in the known ancient world.
Chola Empire
Main article: Chola dynasty
The Cholas, who were very active during the Sangam age, were entirely absent during the first few centuries. 40 The period started with the rivalry between the Pandyas and the Pallavas, which in turn caused the revival of the Cholas.
A sculpture at Airavatesvara Temple, Darasuram, built by Tamil Chola Kings. The Great Living Chola Temples are UNESCO World Heritage sites.
During the ninth century, the Chola dynasty was once again revived by Vijayalaya Chola, who established Thanjavur as Chola's new capital by conquering central Tamil Nadu from the local clans of Mutharayar and the Pandya king Varagunavarman II. Aditya I and his son Parantaka I expanded the kingdom to the northern parts of Tamil Nadu by defeating the last Pallava king, Aparajitavarman.
Parantaka Chola II expanded the Chola empire into what is now interior Andhra Pradesh and coastal Karnataka, while under the great Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola, the Cholas rose to a notable power in south east Asia. Now the Chola Empire stretched as far as Bengal and Sir Lanka. At its peak, the empire spanned almost 3,600,000 km2 (1,400,000 sq mi). Rajaraja Chola conquered all of peninsular south India and parts of Sri Lanka. Rajendra Chola's navy went even further, occupying coasts from Burma (now Myanmar) to Vietnam, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Sumatra, Java, Malaya, Philippines 41 in South East Asia and Pegu islands. He defeated Mahipala, the king of Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital and named it Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
The Chola Empire at its greatest extent, during the reign of Rajendra Chola I in 1030 CE
The Cholas were prolific temple builders right from the times of the first medieval king Vijayalaya Chola. These are the earliest specimen of Dravidian temples under the Cholas. His son Aditya I built several temples around the Kanchi and Kumbakonam regions. The Cholas went on to becoming a great power and built some of the most imposing religious structures in their lifetime and they also renovated temples and buildings of the Pallavas, acknowledging their common socio-religious and cultural heritage. The celebrated Nataraja temple at Chidambaram and the Sri Ranganathaswami Temple at Srirangam held special significance for the Cholas which have been mentioned in their inscriptions as their tutelary deities.
Natarajan, Siva as celestial dancer, an example of Chola art.
Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola, who built temples such as the Brihadeshvara Temple of Thanjavur and Brihadeshvara Temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the Airavatesvara Temple of Darasuram and the Sarabeswara (Shiva) Temple, also called the Kampahareswarar Temple at Thirubhuvanam, the last two temples being located near Kumbakonam. The first three of the above four temples are titled Great Living Chola Temples among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes all over the world. Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of southern India the fine figures of Siva in various forms, Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Siva saints are the examples of Chola bronze. Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer.
Brihadeeswara Temple built by Raja Raja Chola I in 1010 CE.
During the rule of the great Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI, in the late eleventh to early twelfth century, the Western Chalukyas convincingly defeated the Cholas on several occasions, weakening their empire. 42 43 With the decline of the Chola dynasty between 1116 and 1185 C.E., the Hoysalas of Kannada country rose to prominence, under King Vishnuvardhana and his grandson, the celebrated Veera Ballala II. 44 45 46 The Hoysalas extended their foothold in Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital that give them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan. 47 48 Hoysala Vira Narasimha II's son Vira Someshwara earned the honorific "uncle" (Mamadi) from the Pandyas and Cholas. The Hoysala influence spread over Pandya kingdom from who they gained tribute. 49 This revival was short-lived as the Pandya capital of Madurai itself was sacked by Alauddin Khilji's troops under General Malik Kafur in 1316. The Muslim invasion led to the establishment of the short-lived Madurai Sultanate.
Summary of Regions in the Sangam and Medieval Periods citation needed
Chera Nadu or Kongu Nadu: The western region comprising roughly the modern districts of Coimbatore, Nilgiris, Erode, Salem, Tiruppur, Namakkal,Karur and Dharmapuri.
Chola Nadu: The eastern region comprising roughly the modern districts of Tiruchirappalli, Thanjavur, Thiruvarur, Nagapattinam, Ariyalur, Perambalur and Pudukottai with UT of Karaikal.
Pandya Nadu: The southern districts of Madurai, Virudhunagar, Dindigul, Theni, Sivaganga, Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi.
Tondai Nadu or Pallava Nadu: The modern districts of Chitoor, Vellore, Thiruvannamalai, Villupuram,Kanchipuram, Chengulput, Thiruvallur, Cuddalore, Krishnagiri, part of Dharmapuri and Chennai with UT of Puducherry
Nadu Nadu: Parts of Villupuram, Cuddalore and Salem districts.
Nanjil Nadu: Nagercoil (Kanyakumari district)
Sangam texts refer to more "Koduntamil" mandalams which are not exactly political or socio - cultural units but linguistic agglomerations.
Vijayanagar and Nayak period (1336–1646)
Main article: Vijayanagara Empire
The Muslim invasions of southern India triggered the establishment of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire with Vijayanagara in modern Karnataka as its capital. The Vijayanagara empire eventually conquered the entire Tamil country by c. 1370 C.E. and ruled for almost two centuries until its defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by a confederacy of Deccan sultanates.
The region has been the home of the Tamil people since at least 1500 BCE. 10 Its official language Tamil has been in use in inscriptions and literature for over 3,800 years. Hindus believe that Lord Shiva himself taught Rishi Agastya this language. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Sage Rishi Agastya is considered as the Father of Tamil literature and compiled the first Tamil grammar called Agathiyam, but the scripts of Agathiyam does not exist 19 . It is believed that he has lived in the 6th or 7th century B.C and specialized in language, alchemy, medicine and spirituality (yogam and gnanam). There are 96 books in the name of Agathiyar. 20 Tamil Nadu is home to many natural resources, Hindu temples of Dravidian architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites
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