History of Karnataka, Political history of medieval Karnataka, and Etymology of Karnataka
Photo of brown cone-topped temple ruins
Mallikarjuna temple and Kashi Vishwanatha temple at Pattadakal, Karnataka, built successively by the kings of the Chalukya Empire and Rashtrakuta Empire is a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Karnataka's pre-history goes back to a paleolithic hand-axe culture evidenced by discoveries of, among other things, hand axes and cleavers in the region. 9 Evidence of neolithic and megalithic cultures have also been found in the state. Gold discovered in Harappa was found to be imported from mines in Karnataka, prompting scholars to hypothesize about contacts between ancient Karnataka and the Indus Valley Civilization ca. 3000 BCE. 10 11
Prior to the third century BCE, most of Karnataka formed part of the Nanda Empire before coming under the Mauryan empire of Emperor Ashoka. Four centuries of Satavahana rule followed, allowing them to control large areas of Karnataka. The decline of Satavahana power led to the rise of the earliest native kingdoms, the Kadambas and the Western Gangas, marking the region's emergence as an independent political entity. The Kadamba Dynasty, founded by Mayurasharma, had its capital at Banavasi; 12 13 the Western Ganga Dynasty was formed with Talakad as its capital. 14 15
Relief sculpture of deity with 10 arms and people below
Hoysala Empire sculptural articulation in Belur.
These were also the first kingdoms to use Kannada in administration, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription and a fifth-century copper coin discovered at Banavasi. 16 17 These dynasties were followed by imperial Kannada empires such as the Badami Chalukyas, 18 19 the Rashtrakuta Empire of Manyakheta 20 21 and the Western Chalukya Empire, 22 23 which ruled over large parts of the Deccan and had their capitals in what is now Karnataka. The Western Chalukyas patronised a unique style of architecture and Kannada literature which became a precursor to the Hoysala art of 12th century. 24 25 Parts of modern-day Southern Karnataka (Gangavadi) were occupied by the Chola Empire at the turn of 11th century. 26 The Cholas and the Hoysalas fought over the region in the 12th century before it eventually came under Hoysala rule. 26
Brown stone statue of smiling deity sitting cross-legged under arch
Statue of Ugranarasimha at Hampi (a World Heritage Site), located within the ruins of Vijayanagara, the former capital of the Vijayanagara Empire.
At the turn of the first millennium, the Hoysalas gained power in the region. Literature flourished during this time, which led to the distinctive Kannada literary metres and the construction of temples and sculptures adhering to the Vesara style of architecture. 27 28 29 30 The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought minor parts of modern Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu under its rule. In the early 14th century, Harihara and Bukka Raya established the Vijayanagara empire with its capital, Hosapattana (later named Vijayanagara), on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the modern Bellary district. The empire rose as a bulwark against Muslim advances into South India, which it completely controlled for over two centuries. 31 32
In 1565, Karnataka and the rest of South India experienced a major geopolitical shift when the Vijayanagara Empire fell to a confederation of Islamic sultanates in the Battle of Talikota. 33 The Bijapur Sultanate, which had risen after the demise of the Bahmani Sultanate of Bidar, soon took control of the Deccan; it was defeated by the Moghuls in the late 17th century. 34 35 The Bahamani and Bijapur rulers encouraged Urdu and Persian literature and Indo-Saracenic architecture, the Gol Gumbaz being one of the high points of this style. 36 During the sixteenth century, Konkani Hindus migrated to Karnataka, mostly from Salcette, Goa, 37 while during the seventeenth and eighteenth century, Goan Catholics migrated to South Canara, especially from Bardes, Goa, as a result of food shortages, epidemics and heavy taxation imposed by the Portuguese. 38
Side portrait of man in turban wearing knitted tunic with gold sword
The tradition talks about a body of scriptures preached by all the tirthankara of Jainism. These scriptures were contained in fourteen parts and were known as Purva. It was memorized and passed on through the ages, but became fairly vulnerable and were lost because of famine that caused the death of several jain saints ,within a thousand years of Mahavira's death,.16
Agamas are canonical texts of Jainism based on Mahavira's teachings. These comprise forty-six works: twelve angas, twelve upanga agamas, six chedasutras, four mulasutras, ten prakirnaka sutras and two culikasutras.17
The Digambara sect of Jainism maintains that these agamas were also lost during the same famine. In the absence of authentic scriptures, Digambars use about twenty-five scriptures written for their religious practice by great Acharyas. These include two main texts, four Pratham-Anuyog, three charn-anuyoga, four karan-anuyoga and twelve dravya-anuyoga.18
Jains developed a system of philosophy and ethics that had a great impact on Indian culture. They have contributed to the culture and language of the Indian states Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan. Jaina scholars and poets authored Tamil classics of the Sangam period, such as the Civaka Cintamani and Nala?iyar.19 In the beginning of the mediaeval period, between the 9th and 13th centuries, Kannada authors were predominantly of the Jain and Lingayati faiths. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, which they dominated until the 12th century. Jains wrote about the tirthankara and other aspects of the faith. Adikavi Pampa is one of the greatest Kannada poets. Court poet to the Chalukya king Arikesari, a Rashtrakuta feudatory, he is best known for his Vikramarjuna Vijaya.20
The earliest known Gujarati poem in Rasa genre, Bharateshwar Bahubali Rasa, was written in 1185 by Shalibhadra Suri, a jaina monk.21 Acharya Hemachandra and his pupil, the Solanki ruler Kumarpal, were important people in Gujarat's history.22
The oldest jaina literature is in Shauraseni and the Prakrit (the jaina Agamas, the Agama-Tulya and Siddhanta texts, among others). The classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tattvartha Sutra, Puranas, Kosh, Sravakacara, mathematical works, Nighantus, and so on).23 Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha, written by Rajendrasuri, is an encyclopedia or a dictionary available for interpreting the oldest literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Ardha-Magadhi and other languages.2425
Jains encourage their monks to do research and obtain higher education. Monks and nuns, particularly in Rajasthan, have published numerous research monographs. This is unique among Indian religious groups. The 2001 census states that Jains are India's most literate community.6 Jaina libraries, including those at Patan and Jaisalmer, have a large number of well preserved manuscripts.726 To give an idea of how much literature has been encouraged amongst Jains, the number of its poets "is estimated to be in the vicinity of 1500".27
Doctrine
Epistemology
The Nature of truth
Main article: Anekantavada
One of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism is hanekantavada. It refers to the principles of pluralism and multiplicity of viewpoints, and to the notion that truth and reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, no single one of which is complete.2829
Jains contrast all attempts to proclaim absolute truth with this theory, which can be illustrated through the parable of the blind men and an elephant. In this story, each blind man feels a different part of an elephant: its trunk, leg, ear, and so on. All of them claim to understand and explain the true appearance of the elephant but, due to their limited perspectives, can only partly succeed.30 This principle is more formally stated by observing that objects are infinite in their qualities and modes of existence, so they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite human perception. Only Kevalis—omniscient beings—can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations; others are only capable of partial knowledge.31 Accordingly, no single, specific, human view can claim to represent absolute truth.28
Anekantavada encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals and opposing parties. Proponents of anekantavada apply this principle to religions and philosophies, reminding themselves that any of these—even Jainism—that clings too dogmatically to its own tenets is committing an error based on its limited point of view.32 The principle of anekantavada also influenced Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi to adopt principles of religious tolerance, ahi?sa and satyagraha.33
Syadvada is the theory of conditioned predication, which recommends the expression of anekanta by prefixing the epithet Syad to every phrase or expression.34 Syadvada is not only an extension of anekanta into ontology, but a separate system of logic capable of standing on its own. The Sanskrit etymological root of the term syad is "perhaps" or "maybe", but in the context of syadvada it means "in some ways" or "from some perspective". As reality is complex, no single proposition can express its nature fully. The term "syat" should therefore be prefixed to each proposition, giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing dogmatism from the statement.35 Since it comprises seven different conditional and relative viewpoints or propositions, syadvada is known as saptibha?ginaya or the theory of seven conditioned predications. These seven propositions, also known as saptibha?gi, are:36
syad-asti—in some ways, it is;
syad-nasti—in some ways, it is not;
syad-asti-nasti—in some ways, it is, and it is not;
syad-asti-avaktavya?—in some ways, it is, and it is indescribable;
syad-nasti-avaktavya?—in some ways, it is not, and it is indescribable;
syad-asti-nasti-avaktavya?—in some ways, it is, it is not, and it is indescribable;
syad-avaktavya?—in some ways, it is indescribable.
The principle of non-violence or ahimsa is the most distinctive and well known aspect of jaina religious practice. The jaina understanding and implementation of ahimsa is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in other religions.57 Non-violence is seen as the most essential religious duty for everyone.58
When Mahavira revived and reorganised the jaina movement in the 6th century BCE,59 ahimsa was already an established, strictly observed rule. Parsva, the 23rd jaina tirthankara founded the community to which Mahavira's parents belonged,60 and ahimsa was already part of the Caujjama, four vows taken by Parsva's followers. For centuries following Mahavira's time, Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and Hindus, whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of ahimsa. In the practice of ahimsa the requirements are less strict for laypersons who have undertaken anuvrata (lesser vows), than for the monastics who are bound by the mahavrata (great vows).61
A scrupulous and thorough application of non-violence to everyday activities, and especially to food, is the most significant hallmark of jaina identity.62 The jaina diet, observed by the followers of jaina culture and philosophy, is one of the most rigorous forms of spiritually motivated diet found either on the Indian subcontinent or elsewhere. It is completely vegetarian, excludes onions and garlic, and may additionally exclude potatoes and other root vegetables. The strictest forms of jaina diet are practised by the ascetics.63 For Jains, lacto-vegetarianism represents the minimal obligation: food which contains even small particles of the bodies of dead animals or eggs is absolutely unacceptable. Jain scholars and activists support veganism, as the production of dairy products is perceived to involve violence against cows. Strict Jains do not eat root vegetables, such as potatoes and onions, because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and also because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a living being.64
Jains make considerable efforts in everyday life not to injure plants any more than necessary. Although they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for minimizing violence against plants. Jains also go out of their way not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals. They rarely go out at night, when it is more likely that they might trample insects. In their view, injury caused by carelessness is like injury caused by deliberate action.65 Eating honey is strictly outlawed, as it would amount to violence against the bees. Jains avoid farming because it inevitably entails unintentional killing or injuring of small animals, such as worms and insects, but agriculture is not forbidden in general and Jain farmers exist.66 Additionally, because they consider harsh words to be a form of violence, they often keep a cloth for a ritual mouth-covering, serving as a reminder not to allow violence in their speech.67
Although every life-form is said to deserve protection from injury, Jains admit that this ideal cannot be completely implemented in practice. Hence they recognise a hierarchy of life that gives less protection to immobile beings than to mobile ones, which are further distinguished by the number of senses they possess, from one to five. A single-sensed animal has touch as its only sensory modality. The more senses a being has, the more care Jains take for its protection. Among those with five senses, rational beings (humans) are the most strongly protected by ahimsa. Nonetheless, Jains agree that violence in self-defence can be justified,68 and that a soldier who kills enemies in co
Photo of brown cone-topped temple ruins
Mallikarjuna temple and Kashi Vishwanatha temple at Pattadakal, Karnataka, built successively by the kings of the Chalukya Empire and Rashtrakuta Empire is a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Karnataka's pre-history goes back to a paleolithic hand-axe culture evidenced by discoveries of, among other things, hand axes and cleavers in the region. 9 Evidence of neolithic and megalithic cultures have also been found in the state. Gold discovered in Harappa was found to be imported from mines in Karnataka, prompting scholars to hypothesize about contacts between ancient Karnataka and the Indus Valley Civilization ca. 3000 BCE. 10 11
Prior to the third century BCE, most of Karnataka formed part of the Nanda Empire before coming under the Mauryan empire of Emperor Ashoka. Four centuries of Satavahana rule followed, allowing them to control large areas of Karnataka. The decline of Satavahana power led to the rise of the earliest native kingdoms, the Kadambas and the Western Gangas, marking the region's emergence as an independent political entity. The Kadamba Dynasty, founded by Mayurasharma, had its capital at Banavasi; 12 13 the Western Ganga Dynasty was formed with Talakad as its capital. 14 15
Relief sculpture of deity with 10 arms and people below
Hoysala Empire sculptural articulation in Belur.
These were also the first kingdoms to use Kannada in administration, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription and a fifth-century copper coin discovered at Banavasi. 16 17 These dynasties were followed by imperial Kannada empires such as the Badami Chalukyas, 18 19 the Rashtrakuta Empire of Manyakheta 20 21 and the Western Chalukya Empire, 22 23 which ruled over large parts of the Deccan and had their capitals in what is now Karnataka. The Western Chalukyas patronised a unique style of architecture and Kannada literature which became a precursor to the Hoysala art of 12th century. 24 25 Parts of modern-day Southern Karnataka (Gangavadi) were occupied by the Chola Empire at the turn of 11th century. 26 The Cholas and the Hoysalas fought over the region in the 12th century before it eventually came under Hoysala rule. 26
Brown stone statue of smiling deity sitting cross-legged under arch
Statue of Ugranarasimha at Hampi (a World Heritage Site), located within the ruins of Vijayanagara, the former capital of the Vijayanagara Empire.
At the turn of the first millennium, the Hoysalas gained power in the region. Literature flourished during this time, which led to the distinctive Kannada literary metres and the construction of temples and sculptures adhering to the Vesara style of architecture. 27 28 29 30 The expansion of the Hoysala Empire brought minor parts of modern Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu under its rule. In the early 14th century, Harihara and Bukka Raya established the Vijayanagara empire with its capital, Hosapattana (later named Vijayanagara), on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the modern Bellary district. The empire rose as a bulwark against Muslim advances into South India, which it completely controlled for over two centuries. 31 32
In 1565, Karnataka and the rest of South India experienced a major geopolitical shift when the Vijayanagara Empire fell to a confederation of Islamic sultanates in the Battle of Talikota. 33 The Bijapur Sultanate, which had risen after the demise of the Bahmani Sultanate of Bidar, soon took control of the Deccan; it was defeated by the Moghuls in the late 17th century. 34 35 The Bahamani and Bijapur rulers encouraged Urdu and Persian literature and Indo-Saracenic architecture, the Gol Gumbaz being one of the high points of this style. 36 During the sixteenth century, Konkani Hindus migrated to Karnataka, mostly from Salcette, Goa, 37 while during the seventeenth and eighteenth century, Goan Catholics migrated to South Canara, especially from Bardes, Goa, as a result of food shortages, epidemics and heavy taxation imposed by the Portuguese. 38
Side portrait of man in turban wearing knitted tunic with gold sword
The tradition talks about a body of scriptures preached by all the tirthankara of Jainism. These scriptures were contained in fourteen parts and were known as Purva. It was memorized and passed on through the ages, but became fairly vulnerable and were lost because of famine that caused the death of several jain saints ,within a thousand years of Mahavira's death,.16
Agamas are canonical texts of Jainism based on Mahavira's teachings. These comprise forty-six works: twelve angas, twelve upanga agamas, six chedasutras, four mulasutras, ten prakirnaka sutras and two culikasutras.17
The Digambara sect of Jainism maintains that these agamas were also lost during the same famine. In the absence of authentic scriptures, Digambars use about twenty-five scriptures written for their religious practice by great Acharyas. These include two main texts, four Pratham-Anuyog, three charn-anuyoga, four karan-anuyoga and twelve dravya-anuyoga.18
Jains developed a system of philosophy and ethics that had a great impact on Indian culture. They have contributed to the culture and language of the Indian states Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan. Jaina scholars and poets authored Tamil classics of the Sangam period, such as the Civaka Cintamani and Nala?iyar.19 In the beginning of the mediaeval period, between the 9th and 13th centuries, Kannada authors were predominantly of the Jain and Lingayati faiths. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, which they dominated until the 12th century. Jains wrote about the tirthankara and other aspects of the faith. Adikavi Pampa is one of the greatest Kannada poets. Court poet to the Chalukya king Arikesari, a Rashtrakuta feudatory, he is best known for his Vikramarjuna Vijaya.20
The earliest known Gujarati poem in Rasa genre, Bharateshwar Bahubali Rasa, was written in 1185 by Shalibhadra Suri, a jaina monk.21 Acharya Hemachandra and his pupil, the Solanki ruler Kumarpal, were important people in Gujarat's history.22
The oldest jaina literature is in Shauraseni and the Prakrit (the jaina Agamas, the Agama-Tulya and Siddhanta texts, among others). The classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tattvartha Sutra, Puranas, Kosh, Sravakacara, mathematical works, Nighantus, and so on).23 Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha, written by Rajendrasuri, is an encyclopedia or a dictionary available for interpreting the oldest literature in Prakrit, Sanskrit, Ardha-Magadhi and other languages.2425
Jains encourage their monks to do research and obtain higher education. Monks and nuns, particularly in Rajasthan, have published numerous research monographs. This is unique among Indian religious groups. The 2001 census states that Jains are India's most literate community.6 Jaina libraries, including those at Patan and Jaisalmer, have a large number of well preserved manuscripts.726 To give an idea of how much literature has been encouraged amongst Jains, the number of its poets "is estimated to be in the vicinity of 1500".27
Doctrine
Epistemology
The Nature of truth
Main article: Anekantavada
One of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism is hanekantavada. It refers to the principles of pluralism and multiplicity of viewpoints, and to the notion that truth and reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, no single one of which is complete.2829
Jains contrast all attempts to proclaim absolute truth with this theory, which can be illustrated through the parable of the blind men and an elephant. In this story, each blind man feels a different part of an elephant: its trunk, leg, ear, and so on. All of them claim to understand and explain the true appearance of the elephant but, due to their limited perspectives, can only partly succeed.30 This principle is more formally stated by observing that objects are infinite in their qualities and modes of existence, so they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite human perception. Only Kevalis—omniscient beings—can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations; others are only capable of partial knowledge.31 Accordingly, no single, specific, human view can claim to represent absolute truth.28
Anekantavada encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals and opposing parties. Proponents of anekantavada apply this principle to religions and philosophies, reminding themselves that any of these—even Jainism—that clings too dogmatically to its own tenets is committing an error based on its limited point of view.32 The principle of anekantavada also influenced Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi to adopt principles of religious tolerance, ahi?sa and satyagraha.33
Syadvada is the theory of conditioned predication, which recommends the expression of anekanta by prefixing the epithet Syad to every phrase or expression.34 Syadvada is not only an extension of anekanta into ontology, but a separate system of logic capable of standing on its own. The Sanskrit etymological root of the term syad is "perhaps" or "maybe", but in the context of syadvada it means "in some ways" or "from some perspective". As reality is complex, no single proposition can express its nature fully. The term "syat" should therefore be prefixed to each proposition, giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing dogmatism from the statement.35 Since it comprises seven different conditional and relative viewpoints or propositions, syadvada is known as saptibha?ginaya or the theory of seven conditioned predications. These seven propositions, also known as saptibha?gi, are:36
syad-asti—in some ways, it is;
syad-nasti—in some ways, it is not;
syad-asti-nasti—in some ways, it is, and it is not;
syad-asti-avaktavya?—in some ways, it is, and it is indescribable;
syad-nasti-avaktavya?—in some ways, it is not, and it is indescribable;
syad-asti-nasti-avaktavya?—in some ways, it is, it is not, and it is indescribable;
syad-avaktavya?—in some ways, it is indescribable.
The principle of non-violence or ahimsa is the most distinctive and well known aspect of jaina religious practice. The jaina understanding and implementation of ahimsa is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in other religions.57 Non-violence is seen as the most essential religious duty for everyone.58
When Mahavira revived and reorganised the jaina movement in the 6th century BCE,59 ahimsa was already an established, strictly observed rule. Parsva, the 23rd jaina tirthankara founded the community to which Mahavira's parents belonged,60 and ahimsa was already part of the Caujjama, four vows taken by Parsva's followers. For centuries following Mahavira's time, Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and Hindus, whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of ahimsa. In the practice of ahimsa the requirements are less strict for laypersons who have undertaken anuvrata (lesser vows), than for the monastics who are bound by the mahavrata (great vows).61
A scrupulous and thorough application of non-violence to everyday activities, and especially to food, is the most significant hallmark of jaina identity.62 The jaina diet, observed by the followers of jaina culture and philosophy, is one of the most rigorous forms of spiritually motivated diet found either on the Indian subcontinent or elsewhere. It is completely vegetarian, excludes onions and garlic, and may additionally exclude potatoes and other root vegetables. The strictest forms of jaina diet are practised by the ascetics.63 For Jains, lacto-vegetarianism represents the minimal obligation: food which contains even small particles of the bodies of dead animals or eggs is absolutely unacceptable. Jain scholars and activists support veganism, as the production of dairy products is perceived to involve violence against cows. Strict Jains do not eat root vegetables, such as potatoes and onions, because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and also because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a living being.64
Jains make considerable efforts in everyday life not to injure plants any more than necessary. Although they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for minimizing violence against plants. Jains also go out of their way not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals. They rarely go out at night, when it is more likely that they might trample insects. In their view, injury caused by carelessness is like injury caused by deliberate action.65 Eating honey is strictly outlawed, as it would amount to violence against the bees. Jains avoid farming because it inevitably entails unintentional killing or injuring of small animals, such as worms and insects, but agriculture is not forbidden in general and Jain farmers exist.66 Additionally, because they consider harsh words to be a form of violence, they often keep a cloth for a ritual mouth-covering, serving as a reminder not to allow violence in their speech.67
Although every life-form is said to deserve protection from injury, Jains admit that this ideal cannot be completely implemented in practice. Hence they recognise a hierarchy of life that gives less protection to immobile beings than to mobile ones, which are further distinguished by the number of senses they possess, from one to five. A single-sensed animal has touch as its only sensory modality. The more senses a being has, the more care Jains take for its protection. Among those with five senses, rational beings (humans) are the most strongly protected by ahimsa. Nonetheless, Jains agree that violence in self-defence can be justified,68 and that a soldier who kills enemies in co
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